Chapter 3 Inclusion and Identity The ancient taoist taijitu symbolizes the synthesis of the individual and the collective. Most people prefer group membership to isolation, but, once they join with others, they find they must sometimes do what is best for the group rather than what benefits them personally. Groups blur the boundary between the self and other, for members retain their personal qualities—their motives, emotions, and outlooks—but add to them a sense of self that is based on their group identity. Groups transform the me into the we. Do humans, by nature, seek solitude or inclusion in groups? When do people embrace collectivism by putting the group’s needs before their own? What processes transform an individual’s sense of self into a collective, social identity?

3: Inclusion and Identity Isolation to Inclusion Need to Belong Inclusion and exclusion Inclusion and Human Nature Individualism to Collectivism Micro: The Social Self Meso: The Group Culture Macro: Collectivism across Cultures Personal Identity to Social Identity Social Identity Theory Motivation and Social

Isolation to Inclusion Need to Belong All human beings, “have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships.” Roy Baumeister & Mark Leary (1995, p. 497). Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe I am cast upon a horrible, desolate island; void of all hope of recovery. I am singled out and separated, as it were, from all the world, to be miserable. I am divided from mankind, a solitary; one banished from human society. I have no soul to speak to or to relieve me.

Isolation can be rejuvenating, but: Rubin Hurricane Carter: I had nothing, absolutely nothing. I was trapped at the bottom, the lowest point at which a human being can exist without being dead: solitary confinement. I had nothing to hold on to, no family, nobody to do anything for me. Isolation can be rejuvenating, but: Isolated individuals (e.g., stranded explorers) report negative effects Solitary confinement recognized as a severe punishment People seek membership in a variety of groups People build their “social capital” by creating online and face-to-face relationships

People affiliate in groups Putnam’s “bowling alone” hypothesis: affiliation patterns are shifting

Type of Loneliness: social and emotional

Different groups reduce different types of loneliness

Inclusion and exclusion The Inclusion/Exclusion Continuum Rejection Acceptance   Maximum Exclusion Active Exclusion Passive Exclusion Ambivalence Passive Inclusion Active Inclusion Maximum Inclusion Group rejects or ostracizes person Group avoids person Group ignores person Group neither accepts nor rejects individual Group allows member to join Group welcomes member Group actively recruits member

Inclusion and exclusion Researchers have studied reactions to ostracism in various ways, including The “life alone” paradigm The ball-toss paradigm (and cyberball) The exclusion paradigm Ostracism: Excluding one or more individuals from a group by reducing or eliminating contact with the person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them.

The Temporal Need-Threat Model of Ostracism: Williams, 2009

Reactions to Exclusion Fight vs Flight Tend and Befriend Withdrawal and freezing Aggressive, combative orientation Attention to social cues Increased motivation Prosocial orientation Results from Gaertner, Iuzzini, & O’Mara, 2008

Inclusion and Survival The evolution of gregariousness (the “herd instinct”) Leary’s sociometer theory Neurological reactions to exclusion

The Evolution of Gregariousness

Leary’s sociometer theory: self-esteem warns of possible exclusion Mark Leary: We need to think about ourselves occasionally, but none of us needs to think about ourselves as much as we do. Self-esteem is not the evaluation of your worth—it is an indicator of how well you are accepted into social groups

The Biology of Ostracism and Inclusion dACC (dorsal cingulate cortex) Anterior insula Ostracism triggers “pain” areas of the brain

Individualism Collectivism Isolation to Inclusion Individualism to Collectivism Personal Identity to Social Identity Individualism Collectivism A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group or community rather than each individual person. Individualism to Collectivism

Individualism to Collectivism Individualism to Collectivism A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group or community rather than each individual person. Individualism to Collectivism

Collectivism Individualism The group is primary, first. Its rights must be recognized and put above the right of the individual. The individual belongs to the group. Individualism The individual is primary, first. His or her rights must be recognized and put above the right of the group as a whole. If the group’s goals aren’t compatible with the individual’s goals, then the individual is free to go his or her own way. Copyright 2004 by Donelson R. Forsyth

Individualism to Collectivism

Individualists Collectivists Micro: The Social Self Individualists Collectivists

individualists and collectivists sex differences Micro: The Social Self America is woven of many strands. I would recognize them and let it so remain. Our fate is to become one, and yet many. ― Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man Differences individualists and collectivists sex differences generational differences Brewer’s optimal distinctiveness theory “

Autonomy and uniqueness Meso: The Group Culture Individualism Collectivism Autonomy and uniqueness Exchange relations Equity Egocentric Reciprocity Conformity and duty Communal relations Equality or need Sociocentric Ingroup oriented

The mean distributions in the Ultimatum Game from people living in 16 different indigenous societies and cultures around the world.

Collectivism across Cultures Cultures: East vs. West Subcultures: Some ethnic groups, such as Asian Americans and Latinos, are more collectivistic than individualistic Regions of the U.S.: Culture of Honor in the south Source: Cohen, Nibsett, Bowdle, & Schwartz

Individualism Collectivism Isolation to Inclusion Individualism to Collectivism Personal Identity to Social Identity Individualism Collectivism A tradition, ideology, or personal outlook that emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other A tradition, ideology, or personal orientation that emphasizes the primacy of the group or community rather than each individual person. Individualism to Collectivism

Personal Identity to Social Identity Social Identity Theory: Basics Basic assumption: the self-concept is determined by group memberships Personal identity (individual self) and Social identity (collective self) Tajfel & Turner’s minimal intergroup situation Key processes: categorization and identification

Social Identity Theory Social categorization: Individuals automatically classify people, including themselves, into groups. Social identification: accepting as self- descriptive (self- stereotyping) the qualities attributed to one’s group (depersonalization) Categorize I am a member of group X People in group X have qualities A, B, and C I have qualities A, B, and C

Collective Self-esteem Self-esteem depends on an individual’s personal qualities and the value of the groups to which they belong

Motivation and Social Identity Ingroup-outgroup bias: Rating one’s own group more positively than other groups. Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG): stressing association with successful groups. Social creativity: Restricting comparisons between the ingroup and other groups to stress the ingroup’s relative strengths Stereotype threat: Anxiety-provoking (and self-confirming) belief that others’ are biased against one’s group Social mobility: Leaving the group

Social Identity Theory Need for self-esteem Personal Identity Inclusion Achievements Social Identity Group achievements Group favoritism Increased self-esteem Outgroup rejection Not clear if outgroup rejection raises self-esteem

Review Isolation to Inclusion Individualism to Collectivism Who are you? A complex, hard-to-answer, question. Isolation to Inclusion Need to Belong Inclusion and exclusion Inclusion and Human Nature Individualism to Collectivism Micro: The Social Self Meso: The Group Culture Macro: Collectivism across Cultures Personal Identity to Social Identity Social Identity Theory Motivation and Social