MGT8033: Twba. Session 4 - Diagnosis Data collection, Information gathering, Processing and Feedback

Learning Objectives Explain the importance of diagnosis in the overall organisational change process Explain the importance of diagnosis in the overall organisational change process Understand the basic principles of data collection and analysis Understand the basic principles of data collection and analysis To (identify and) understand methods for collecting and analysing diagnostic information To (identify and) understand methods for collecting and analysing diagnostic information To learn how to feed back diagnostic information To learn how to feed back diagnostic information

Collecting and Analysing Diagnostic Information

Major methods for collecting data 1. Questionnaires 2. Interviews 3. Observations 4. Unobtrusive methods

1. Questionnaires Considered one of the most efficient ways to collect data Considered one of the most efficient ways to collect data Contain fixed-response questions Contain fixed-response questions Administered to large numbers of people simultaneously Administered to large numbers of people simultaneously Can be analysed quickly Can be analysed quickly Permit quantitative analysis Permit quantitative analysis Data can easily be fed back to employees Data can easily be fed back to employees

1. Questionnaires Advantages Advantages Draw from large samples/groups of respondents Attract and accommodate large quantities of data Relatively inexpensive The activity isn’t time-bound Disadvantages Disadvantages Preset questions may not target the real issues Data can be misinterpreted or overinterpreted Respondets can misinterpret questions Subject to response bias (including deliberate misinformation)

2. Interviews Most frequently used methodology in OD Especially useful where there is trust between managers and employees Can be oriented to the individual or the group Interviews may be highly structured resembling questionnaires resembling questionnaires may be unstructured starting with general questions that allow the respondent to lead the way starting with general questions that allow the respondent to lead the way

2. Interviews Advantages Flexibility – allows discretion re pursuing themes and further clarification Flexibility – allows discretion re pursuing themes and further clarification Primary and rich data Primary and rich data Can build rapport with subjects, in which case more honest and frank disclosure is possible Can build rapport with subjects, in which case more honest and frank disclosure is possible May be individual or group-oriented May be individual or group-oriented Focus groups popular: can uncover info. on specific matters and in great depth. In this form, the process can be quite economical Focus groups popular: can uncover info. on specific matters and in great depth. In this form, the process can be quite economical

2. Interviews Disadvantages Substantial time to plan, conduct and analyse, with potential complications in interpretation of outcomes Substantial time to plan, conduct and analyse, with potential complications in interpretation of outcomes Comparative silence - ‘sleepers’ in group interviews (focus groups) means some views may not be aired. The prevailing views then may not reflect accurately the group view Comparative silence - ‘sleepers’ in group interviews (focus groups) means some views may not be aired. The prevailing views then may not reflect accurately the group view Bias on the part of interviewer or respondent(s) Bias on the part of interviewer or respondent(s)

3. Observations A direct way of collecting data A direct way of collecting data Feature organisational behaviours in their usual functional settings Feature organisational behaviours in their usual functional settings Observer can be group member or completely detached from the group or situation Observer can be group member or completely detached from the group or situation If carried out ‘properly’ need not impinge on or influence normal operations If carried out ‘properly’ need not impinge on or influence normal operations This data collection method requires care/skill This data collection method requires care/skill

3. Observations Advantages Yields data on actual behaviour Yields data on actual behaviour Free of bias associated with self-reporting Free of bias associated with self-reporting Focus on the present whereas other methods tend to be retrospective Focus on the present whereas other methods tend to be retrospective Observer can readily change point of focus Observer can readily change point of focus Disadvantages Meaning behind observed behaviours can be difficult to determine Meaning behind observed behaviours can be difficult to determine Observer bias possible Observer bias possible Sampling issues (see Waddell et al 2011, p. 148) Sampling issues (see Waddell et al 2011, p. 148) Can be expensive Can be expensive

4. Unobtrusive measures Data collected from secondary sources Data collected from secondary sources Records are typically readily accessible Records are typically readily accessible absenteeism, tardiness, grievances, quantity and quality of production or service, financial performance, correspondence with key stakeholders absenteeism, tardiness, grievances, quantity and quality of production or service, financial performance, correspondence with key stakeholders Helpful in diagnosing group and individual outputs Helpful in diagnosing group and individual outputs These data are recorded at various intervals anyway, therefore trends can be identified These data are recorded at various intervals anyway, therefore trends can be identified

4. Unobtrusive measures Advantages Non-reactive, no response bias Non-reactive, no response bias High face validity: can be used to cross- check High face validity: can be used to cross- check Easily quantified and reflect ‘legitimacy’ Easily quantified and reflect ‘legitimacy’ Access and retrieval difficulties (data in a form that’s useful to the company but not the consultant Access and retrieval difficulties (data in a form that’s useful to the company but not the consultant recording procedures are subject to change, which can make validity of data questionable recording procedures are subject to change, which can make validity of data questionable Coding and interpretation difficulties Coding and interpretation difficulties Disadvantages

Sampling-type concerns Questions re how to go about data collection arise, e.g. How many interviews? Who to interview? Which data are pertinent? Which events should be noted? How often? Questions re how to go about data collection arise, e.g. How many interviews? Who to interview? Which data are pertinent? Which events should be noted? How often? Can be circumvented when all org. members are caught in the sample … but this is rare. Can be circumvented when all org. members are caught in the sample … but this is rare. In most data collection for diagnosis, selections are made. Sampling is more expedient and less a resourcing drain on the enterprise. In most data collection for diagnosis, selections are made. Sampling is more expedient and less a resourcing drain on the enterprise. Selections/samples typically need to reflect the characteristics of the population. Selections/samples typically need to reflect the characteristics of the population.

Sampling-type concerns Importance of sample size (how many events, records, people are required?) No definitive answer No definitive answer Sample size decisions are informed by the size of the population, (The larger or more complex the pop., the more rigorous the data should be), the required confidence in the accuracy and relevance of the data (in which case the larger the proportion of sample to pop. the better), and resources made available for data collection (because resource limitations restrict sample size. Sample size decisions are informed by the size of the population, (The larger or more complex the pop., the more rigorous the data should be), the required confidence in the accuracy and relevance of the data (in which case the larger the proportion of sample to pop. the better), and resources made available for data collection (because resource limitations restrict sample size.

Sampling-type concerns Importance of sample selection Simple random sampling is often used (every person, behaviour event or record has equal chance of being included) Simple random sampling is often used (every person, behaviour event or record has equal chance of being included) For complex populations or many different types or groups must be represented in your sample, a stratified sample may be used. Here, for example, the different member types are allocated into mutually exclusive sets, and a random sample is then taken from each. For complex populations or many different types or groups must be represented in your sample, a stratified sample may be used. Here, for example, the different member types are allocated into mutually exclusive sets, and a random sample is then taken from each.

Some Techniques for analysing data Qualitative tools Content analysis Content analysis Force-field analysis Force-field analysis Quantitative tools Means, standard deviations and frequency distributions Means, standard deviations and frequency distributions Scattergrams and correlation coefficients Scattergrams and correlation coefficients Difference tests Difference tests

Feeding Back Diagnostic Information

Characteristics of effective feedback Relevant (meaningful to org. members) Relevant (meaningful to org. members) Understandable (readily interpreted) Understandable (readily interpreted) Descriptive (reflect org. behaviours) Descriptive (reflect org. behaviours) Verifiable (valid & accurate) Verifiable (valid & accurate) Timely (fed back as soon as practicable) Timely (fed back as soon as practicable) Comparative (benchmarking assists here) Comparative (benchmarking assists here) Unfinalised (feedback is a spur for further action & investigation) Unfinalised (feedback is a spur for further action & investigation) Significant (limited to issues the members can reasonably do something about) Significant (limited to issues the members can reasonably do something about)

Characteristics of the feedback process Motivation to work with the data Motivation to work with the data May involve some empowering. Members will use the data insofar as they feel some sense of ownership May involve some empowering. Members will use the data insofar as they feel some sense of ownership Structure for the meeting Structure for the meeting An agenda or direction required. Complicated when the data reflect negatively An agenda or direction required. Complicated when the data reflect negatively Appropriate membership Appropriate membership Suggests that those who are likely to be affected by the impending change, must be included in the feedback meeting Suggests that those who are likely to be affected by the impending change, must be included in the feedback meeting

Characteristics of the feedback process Appropriate power Appropriate power Members need to be clear on which decisions are already made, where they have some discretion or input, and to what extent? Members need to be clear on which decisions are already made, where they have some discretion or input, and to what extent? Little real power to influence changes means little ownership of the data (or the problem) Little real power to influence changes means little ownership of the data (or the problem) Process help Process help Equates to active assistance from the consultant to work through the issues collectively Equates to active assistance from the consultant to work through the issues collectively

Survey feedback steps Involve organisation in preliminary planning Involve organisation in preliminary planning Administer survey instrument Administer survey instrument Analyse the survey data, tabulate results and give suggestions for diagnosis Analyse the survey data, tabulate results and give suggestions for diagnosis Feedback usually begins at the top of the organisation and trickles down. Feedback usually begins at the top of the organisation and trickles down.

Limitations of survey feedback Ambiguity of purpose Difficulty reaching consensus Difficulty reaching consensusDistrust High levels of distrust in the organisation can render the survey feedback ineffective High levels of distrust in the organisation can render the survey feedback ineffective Unacceptable topics Organisational disturbance

Summary Data Gathering questionnaires, interviews, observation, unobtrusive measures questionnaires, interviews, observation, unobtrusive measures Sampling concerns Data Analysis Qualitative methods Qualitative methods Quantitative methods Quantitative methods Characteristics of effective feedback Characteristics of the feedback process Survey feedback (steps & limitations)