Weathering – the physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rock at or near Earth’s surface Erosion – the physical removal of material by agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity Weathering and Erosion Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment: weathered material derived from pre-existing rocks Sedimentary rock: consolidated sediment (compacted, cemented) plus fossils

Clastic sediments seen during fieldtrip

Clastic sedimentary rocks seen during fieldtrip

insoluable

basalt (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 pyroxine H 4 SiO 4 in solution Mg 2+ in solution Fe (III) hydroxide (insoluble, rust) CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 Ca-feldspar and NaAlSi 3 O 8 Na-Feldspar Ca +2 in solution Na +1 in solution Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 (insoluble, “clay”)

granite SiO 2 quartz SiO 2 (insoluble, “sand”) CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 Ca-feldspar; NaAlSi 3 O 8 Na-Feldspar KAlSi 3 O 8 K-Feldspar Ca +2, Na +1, K +1 in solution Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 (insoluble, “clay”) (Ca,Na) 2 (Mg,Fe,Al) 5 (Al,Si) 8 O 22 (OH) 2 amphibole (and also mica) Mg +2, Ca +2, Na +1 in solution Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 (insoluble, “clay”) Fe (III) hydroxide (insoluble, rust)

in quartz sand River sediments are consistent with the composition of the continental crust in clay in rust

Effect of surface area on weathering

Climate and Weathering

Hot and wet favors chemical weathering

Cold and snowy favors mechanial weathering

Why erosion is important Life in the sea depends on it to supply critical nutrients. It is responsible for the salt content of the sea. It is the source of the basic materials to form sedimentary rocks. It continually reduces and shapes the surface of the land.

Sea water Where’s the Cl come from? Why no silica?

Mechanisms of Erosion

Mass Wasting The often catastrophic (geologically rapid) movement of material on the Earth’s surface is referred to as mass wasting. Such features constitute the most widespread of the natural geological hazards. the Slumgullion earthflow/landslide, Hinsdale County, CO

It began high in the mountains as an earthquake-induced avalanche of snow and ice, but picked up glacial sediment on its way. It hit the towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca, 18 km away, at around 150 km/hr. The former town was completely buried. An astounding 66,000 people were estimated dead as a result of this massive debris avalanche. Nevado Huascaran, Peru, 1970

Mudslides: Costa Rica, June, 2000 The June 27 slide killed 10. Six were killed in the same place in 1993 mudslides.

landslides This is a typical landslide. Note that materials hold together in more-or-less singular blocks. As is common, when the slide blocks reach a lower slope, they break up (becoming a debris flow in this case). The La Conchita landslide, near Santa Barbara, CA, Spring, 1995.

(mechanical) weathering Glaciers

Freezing action

Frost wedging

Joint-controlled weathering

Roots (mechanical) weathering

Root Wedging

Chemical Weathering

Differential Weathering and Erosion creates topography Slowly weathered and eroded - high (Morningside Heights, Palisades, Ramapo Mountains) Quickly weathered and eroded - low (sediments beneath Hudson River and west of Palisades)

Differential Weathering

Resistant cap rock

Clastic Sediments from “clast” … little piece Can be associated with rivers, glaciers, wind

Clastic Sediments and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks A. Sediments B. Sedimentary Rocks

Energy and Depositional Environment

Coarse-Grained Sediments Breccias Conglomerates

Tillite Brian J. Skinner

Worldwide sediment yield of major drainage basins

Where erosion occurs … elevation a factor … higher more erosion

Meaning of rate 100 tons per sq km per year 100 tons Rock density about 2.5 tons per cubic meter so 100 tons is about 40 cubic meters (a cube 3.4 m on edge) 1 sq km is 1,000,000 sq meters Spread 40 cu meters over 1,000,000 sq meters and get a layer 40/1,000,000 = meters = 0.04 millimeters thick So in 100 years, wear away 4 mm 1000 meters 1000 m

Rivers and Sediments

Migration of meanders leads to cross-bedding crossbed from fieldtrip

Deltas

Cross-section of Delta note that delta grows (progrades) towards sea

Hjulstrom Curve

Pebbles and cobbles Pebbles and cobbles: hard to get moving, an hard to keep moving

Hjulstrom Curve Sand Sand: easy to get moving, a fairly easy to keep moving

Hjulstrom Curve Silt and Clay Silt and Clay: hard to get moving, but very easy to keep moving

Human Influence Human beings move more sediment through mining and building than rivers do. Agricultural practices also increase erosion in rivers. Rates thousands of years ago were less than today. Empounded water from lakes behind dams also prevent sediment from reaching the sea.

Existence of Lakes Largely due to glaciation disrupting drainage networks. North American lakes mostly at latitudes greater than 45°, where glaciers were during Pleistocene. Will slowly fill up with sediment and disappear

Removal from sea water Particles settle and are deposited as sediment. –Sedimentary rocks consisting of fine-grained particles (<.06 mm) are called shale. –Sedimentary rocks made of medium-grained particles (.06-2 mm) are called sandstone. –Sedimentary rocks consisting of coarse-grained particles (> 2 mm) are called. conglomerates. Calcium and bicarbonate are removed from seawater by organisms to form shells made of CaCO3 (limestone). SiO 4 is removed from solution by organisms to form silica “ooze” which lithifies to chert (arrowheads). Mg++ and SO 4-- are removed from ocean water as that water is heated and pumped through mid-oceanic ridges. Na+, K+, and Cl- are removed from seawater sporadically in evaporite deposits.

Formation of sedimentary rocks Cementation of grains by CaCO 3 or SiO 2. Names of clastic rocks depend on size of grains (big to small). –Conglomerates - tend to be poorly sorted. –Sandstones - often well-sorted. –Shales - made of clay minerals. Non-clastic rocks: from dissolved load –Limestones - CaCO 3, usually removed from water by a biological process (e.g. corals and sea-shells). –Evaporites - NaCl and CaSO 4 from evaporation of seawater in enclosed basins (e.g. Utah's Great Salt Lake and the Mid-East's Dead Sea).

Shale Formation

Bioclastic Limestone

Fine-Grained Limestone Deep sea limestones will not have visible fossils, because they are made up of the shells of little dead bugs like these: foraminifera. This specimen (viewed by scanning electron microscope) is about 100 microns long (0.1 millimeter).

Coccoliths – another type of organisms with a CaCO 3 test

Chert Some microorganisms secrete silica shells. When these pile up on the deep ocean floor, they lithify to become a micro-crystalline quartz rock called chert (the same stuff as the substance flint). diatoms and radiolaria

Diatoms – organisms with silica tests

Radiolaria – another silica test

Chert arrowhead

Chert beds, now deformed Near Golden Gate Bridge

Evaporites Owens Valley, CA Calcite, halite and gypsum are common precipitates from dried lakes in arid environments. the white is halite, the red are bacteria that love salt

Martin G. Miller Evaporites in Death Valley