Chapter 7 – The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development The Developing Person Through the Life Span 8e by Kathleen Stassen Berger Chapter 7 – The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development PowerPoint Slides developed by Martin Wolfger and Michael James Ivy Tech Community College-Bloomington Reviewed by Raquel Henry Lone Star College, Kingwood

Emotional Development Infants’ Emotions Smiling and Laughing Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity Anger First expressions at around 6 months Healthy response to frustration Sadness Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol Stressful experience for infants

Emotional Development Fear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations

Emotional Development Stranger wariness: Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close Separation anxiety: Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.

Emotional Development Toddlers’ Emotions Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating New emotions appear: pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt Require an awareness of other people Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture

Emotional Development Self-awareness The realization that one’s body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self; may see themselves as part of their mothers. 5 months: Begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.

Emotional Development Mirror Recognition Classic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978) Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses. None of those younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them. 15- to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.

Social Impulses Emotional Self-regulation Directly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions Toddlers get angry when teased by an older sibling or react with fear when entering the doctor’s office. Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences.

Stress Hypothalamus Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production May grow more slowly if an infant is often stressed Abuse (form of chronic stress) Potential long-term effects on a child’s emotional development Excessive stress in infants must be prevented

Stress Stress can be avoided by: supporting new mothers involving new fathers in the care of the infant strengthening the parents’ relationship

Brain Maturation and the Emotions Synesthesia When one sense triggers another in the brain Common in infants because boundaries between sensory parts of the cortex are less distinct. Cross-modal perception Infant associates textures with vision, sounds with smells, own body with the bodies of others Basis for early social understanding Synesthesia of emotions Infant’s cry can be triggered by pain, fear, tiredness, or excitement; laughter can turn to tears. Emotions are difficult to predict because of the way infants’ brains are activated.

Brain Maturation and the Emotions Temperament Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices

The N.Y. Longitudinal Study Findings Found 4 categories of temperament Easy (40%) Difficult (10%) Slow to warm up (15%) Hard to classify (35%) Additional findings: Parenting practices are crucial, temperament can change or be changed

Goodness of Fit A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context includes family, school, and community. With a good fit parents of difficult babies build a close relationship parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Psychoanalytic Theory Freud: Oral and Anal Stages Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant’s primary source of gratification Anal stage (second year): Infant’s main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them) Potential conflicts: Oral fixation: If denied the infant urge to suck, may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively) Anal personality: Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Erikson: Trust and Autonomy Trust versus mistrust Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met Autonomy versus shame and doubt Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and bodies Early problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy)

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Behaviorism Parents mold an infant’s emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment Social learning The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Cognitive Theory Working model: a set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiences A person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous. The child’s interpretation of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves. New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Ethnotheory A theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture. Example: Culture’s ethnotheory includes the belief in reincarnation Children are not expected to show respect for adults, but adults must show respect for their reborn ancestors  indulgent child-rearing Perceived as extremely lenient by Western cultures

Proximal and Distal Parenting Proximal parenting Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching Distal parenting Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching

Proximal and Distal Parenting

Synchrony A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant Synchrony in the first few months Becomes more frequent and more elaborate Helps infants learn to read others’ emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants

When Synchrony Disappears Experiments using the still-face technique An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stress Conclusions: A parent’s responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological development Infants’ brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

Attachment Attachment is a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person’s close relationships throughout life Infants show attachment through proximity-seeking (i.e. approaching caregiver) and contact-maintaining (i.e. touching, holding)

Attachment

Secure and Insecure Attachment Secure attachment: An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. Insecure-avoidant attachment: An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

Secure and Insecure Attachment 3. Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: An infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion. 4. Disorganized attachment: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

Secure and Insecure Attachment

Measuring Attachment Strange Situation Key behaviors to observe: A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom. Key behaviors to observe: Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily. Reaction to the caregiver’s departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver. Reaction to the caregiver’s return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver’s reappearance.

Measuring Attachment

Measuring Attachment

Social Referencing Social referencing Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions. Mothers use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.

Fathers as Social Partners Fathers usually spend less time with infants than mothers do and are less involved parents Reasons: Fathers’ own ideas of appropriate male behavior Mothers often limit fathers’ interactions with their children Quality of marital relationship is best predictor Happier husbands tend to be more involved fathers

Comparing Fathers and Mothers Selected research findings: Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their fathers as infants (Trautmann-Villalba et al., 2006). Close father–infant relationships can teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion (Boyce et al., 2006). Close relationships with their infants reduce fathers’ risk of depression (Borke et al., 2007; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007). Mothers tend to engage in more caregiving and comforting, and fathers tend to engage in more high-intensity play (Kochanska et al., 2008).

Infant Day Care Family day care Center day care Child care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it. Center day care Child care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children. Usually the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

Infant Day Care

The Effects of Infant Day Care The impact of nonmaternal care depends on many factors. Psychosocial characteristics, including secure attachment, are influenced more by the mother’s warmth than by the number of hours spent in nonmaternal care. Quality of care is crucial, no matter who provides that care.