On Meaning December 10, 2009

Sign Token: stimulates at least one sensory organ Referent: points out the thing designated in the real world Token: stimulates at least one sensory organ Referent: points out the thing designated in the real world

Signs: Referents, Tokens

How Signs Work

Sign Type I: Icons concrete, directly representational visual image OR auditory copy: onomatopoeia “buzz” “crack” “splat” “cuckoo” “Batman” words concrete, directly representational visual image OR auditory copy: onomatopoeia “buzz” “crack” “splat” “cuckoo” “Batman” words

Icons

Sign Type II: Symptoms Spontaneously convey the internal state or emotions of the sender Not deliberately selected Not arbitrary Examples blushing red of electric burner of stove Spontaneously convey the internal state or emotions of the sender Not deliberately selected Not arbitrary Examples blushing red of electric burner of stove

Sign Type III: Symbols Abstract Arbitrary Not directly representational Does not look like or sound like its referent Abstract Arbitrary Not directly representational Does not look like or sound like its referent

Symbols

How Signs Work

What is this based on? Saussure needed a theoretical basis for his ‘synchronic’ linguistics (v. diachronic): a study of the state of language in general; an understanding of the conditions of any language. Saussure needed a theoretical basis for his ‘synchronic’ linguistics (v. diachronic): a study of the state of language in general; an understanding of the conditions of any language.

Dyadic sign system A synchronic view ultimately takes a slice of language out of time and space for analysis; and views a language as a self- refential system. Applied to the sign, this gives us signifier and signified. A synchronic view ultimately takes a slice of language out of time and space for analysis; and views a language as a self- refential system. Applied to the sign, this gives us signifier and signified.

Chien/Hund/Inu This material aspect and mental concept are bound together. Further, their relationship is arbitrary: ‘d-o-g’ does not equal ‘dogness.’ This material aspect and mental concept are bound together. Further, their relationship is arbitrary: ‘d-o-g’ does not equal ‘dogness.’

Meaningless Meaning is a psychological phenomenon and thus not a concern of Saussure’s semiology. Language and meaning are divorced. His ideas set up the langue/ parole division which informs all of linguistics; the latter being of prime concern. Meaning is a psychological phenomenon and thus not a concern of Saussure’s semiology. Language and meaning are divorced. His ideas set up the langue/ parole division which informs all of linguistics; the latter being of prime concern.

How did this come about? Where to begin? Long, long ago… Pursuits of meaning have tended to travel through language to arrive there. Where to begin? Long, long ago… Pursuits of meaning have tended to travel through language to arrive there.

Bacon restores “invention” to rhetoric Investigation vs. Invention Former = a function of logic Latter = the recovery of pertinent information for argument or teaching Thus, rhetoric ends up with the ‘service’ aspect of invention Investigation vs. Invention Former = a function of logic Latter = the recovery of pertinent information for argument or teaching Thus, rhetoric ends up with the ‘service’ aspect of invention

Meaning left behind Bacon favored inductive logic, as it furthered the new science. Deductive logic’s use of syllogism relied on established premises, thus not fruitful. Logic approaches reason (i.e. ‘investigation’), and is distanced from communication. Bacon favored inductive logic, as it furthered the new science. Deductive logic’s use of syllogism relied on established premises, thus not fruitful. Logic approaches reason (i.e. ‘investigation’), and is distanced from communication.

Enter Descartes Argument is for dispute Communicative/probabilistic aspects are assigned to rhetoric Experiment is for investigation As we are all ‘mental,’ logic must be a means of investigation, not just proof Argument is for dispute Communicative/probabilistic aspects are assigned to rhetoric Experiment is for investigation As we are all ‘mental,’ logic must be a means of investigation, not just proof

Science as Truth, Language as Impediment Late 17 th century calls for language clarity Royal Society: attacks the uncertainty that Tropes & Figures induce Locke: use words consistently to tighten their relation with ideas Late 17 th century calls for language clarity Royal Society: attacks the uncertainty that Tropes & Figures induce Locke: use words consistently to tighten their relation with ideas

18 th Century “Fixing” language through dictionaries and prescriptive grammars Universal grammar stimulated scientific study of language & eventually linguistics “Fixing” language through dictionaries and prescriptive grammars Universal grammar stimulated scientific study of language & eventually linguistics

Meanwhile… Peirce develops a triadic sign system: sign/object/interpretant Interpretant is able to become a further sign/object; thus meaning is dynamic Peirce develops a triadic sign system: sign/object/interpretant Interpretant is able to become a further sign/object; thus meaning is dynamic

Bringing it into rhetoric I.A. Richards - early 20 th century A founder of the new rhetoric Draws on several fields: Language & Semiotics in particular Saussure – language as arbitrary Peirce – semiotic triangle I.A. Richards - early 20 th century A founder of the new rhetoric Draws on several fields: Language & Semiotics in particular Saussure – language as arbitrary Peirce – semiotic triangle

IAR’s motivation: misunderstanding The proper meaning superstition IAR attacks the notion that every word has a correct meaning of its own. The stability in words comes only from the constancy in some contexts. Contexts are ever changing and they always determine and shape word meanings. The proper meaning superstition IAR attacks the notion that every word has a correct meaning of its own. The stability in words comes only from the constancy in some contexts. Contexts are ever changing and they always determine and shape word meanings.

Context IAR expands Saussure’s paradigmatic and syntagmatic ideas and uses Peirce’s idea of unlimited semiosis (through the semiotic triangle)

Meaning beyond words “A word's context, in this sense, is a certain recurrent pattern of past groups of events, and to say that its meaning depends on its context would be to point to the process by which it has acquired its meaning" Interpretation in Teaching (p. VIII) “A word's context, in this sense, is a certain recurrent pattern of past groups of events, and to say that its meaning depends on its context would be to point to the process by which it has acquired its meaning" Interpretation in Teaching (p. VIII)

Expanding context IAR incorporated the latest views on meaning in order to develop rhetoric Current work meshing cognitive science, phenomenology and art could also add to the field IAR incorporated the latest views on meaning in order to develop rhetoric Current work meshing cognitive science, phenomenology and art could also add to the field

Embodied Meaning Mark Johnson finds the bodily origin of meaning in sensorimotor processes: Qualities and structures of movement, infant development, emotions & concepts/reason Preconscious meaning underlies our higher-level achievements of thinking and communicating Mark Johnson finds the bodily origin of meaning in sensorimotor processes: Qualities and structures of movement, infant development, emotions & concepts/reason Preconscious meaning underlies our higher-level achievements of thinking and communicating

MJ Looks at human cognition within an evolutionary framework of animal cognition Problematizes ‘representational theory of mind’ – suggests thought emerges via sensorimotor capacities (and not internal representations) Looks at human cognition within an evolutionary framework of animal cognition Problematizes ‘representational theory of mind’ – suggests thought emerges via sensorimotor capacities (and not internal representations)

MJ Argues that the structures and processes we use in everyday meaning-making are the same used in art Looks at meaning in poetry, painting and music: “the arts are important just insofar as they help us grasp, criticize, and transform meaning and values”. –Dewey Argues that the structures and processes we use in everyday meaning-making are the same used in art Looks at meaning in poetry, painting and music: “the arts are important just insofar as they help us grasp, criticize, and transform meaning and values”. –Dewey

Another context Expanding the meaning of meaning to include ourselves. Visual rhetoric was just the beginning Meaning should be open to all nonverbal interpretations Expanding the meaning of meaning to include ourselves. Visual rhetoric was just the beginning Meaning should be open to all nonverbal interpretations

Fahnestock on Cog Science We should not imitate it but continue to look at historically situated texts and the trends they embody; rhetoric shouldn’t be hostile to scientific grounding. “In the days of Campbell, rhetoricians did predict that (it) could be compatible with science.” “Rhetoric in the Age of Cognitive Science” p. 175 (2005) We should not imitate it but continue to look at historically situated texts and the trends they embody; rhetoric shouldn’t be hostile to scientific grounding. “In the days of Campbell, rhetoricians did predict that (it) could be compatible with science.” “Rhetoric in the Age of Cognitive Science” p. 175 (2005)

Signs: Symbol or Icon?