LOGO 1 ERT 246 HYDROLOGY & WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING Ms Siti Kamariah Bt Md Sa’at School of Bioprocess Engineering Study !!! DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

2 DISCHARGE/STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE

3 Streamflow and Measurement  The character, amount, and timing of discharge from a basin tells a lot about flow paths within the basin.  Stream flow is one of the most important topics in engineering hydrology because it directly relate to water supply, flood control, reservoir design, navigation, irrigation, drainage, water quality, and others.

4 Need for Stream flow Measurements  Floodplain management  Flood forecasting & analysis  Reservoir operations  Low flows – water quality concerns  Design structures – culverts, bridges, storm water systems  Evaluate changes in land use on watersheds and/or changes in climatic regimes

5 Floods

6 Need for Streamflow Measurements  Important to hydrogeologist to identify how to create stream hydrographs from discharge measurements

7 Measurement of discharge  Method used depends on type of study, size of river and flow, data requirements, etc.  Streamflow measurement techniques can be broadly classified into 2 categories:  Direct determination – area-velocity method, dilution techniques, electromagnetic method, ultrasonic method  Indirect determination – hydraulic structures, slope-area method

8 Streamflow Measurements  Serves as the basis for many water resources engineering designs  Three approaches  Measurement of water stage (water level)  Measurement of flow velocity  Hydraulic Structure

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10 Con’t

11 Streamflow Measurements  Measurement of Water Stage  Water stage: the elevation above some arbitrary datum of water surface at a station  Types of Gages Measuring River Stage: Staff gage – vertical or inclined Suspended – weight gage Recording gage (automatic data logger) Crest – stage gage ( used to indicate high water mark)  Pressure sensor  Float

12 Figures of Stream Gauges

13 Stream gauges

14 Streamflow Measurements  Measurement of Flow Velocity  Current meter  Dilution  Manning Equation  Floats: Suitable for straight channel, V = L/T

15 Current Meters

16 Discharge (Q) Measurement

17 Area-Velocity Method

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19 Measuring Streamflow in small streams with a pygmy current meter

20 Discharge (Q) Measurement Large rivers – from bridges or boats

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23 Current Meter Method  3 types of current meter  Propeller type : for high discharge  Price type using anemometer  Electromagnetic type : for low river flow  Rating curve for current meter is given by: V = a + b  N where V = flow velocity; a = starting velocity to overcome mechanical friction; b = equipment calibration constant; N = revolutions/sec.

24 For river velocity measurement, we need:  Wading/Paddle  Bridges  Boat  Cablecar  Cableway

25 Velocity-Area Method  Mostly/frequently used  River cross-section determined  Velocity measured using  Float (for straight channel)  Current meter  Vertical velocity measured at 0.2d and 0.8d if depth,d >0.6m. If d<0.6m, velocity measured at 0.6dm.

26 Velocity-Area Method  Q = [Velocity x Area]  Need to know width of channel (w), Depth of channel (d), and Velocity of flow (V) (ft/s or m/s)  Area = w x d  Because depth & velocity vary across a channel: (1)Important to divide the channel into manageable segments (slices); Typically use segments (2)For each segment measure depth, width and velocity

27 Measuring Streamflow Discharge  Procedure: at each segment measure depth then velocity If Depth < 0.6m, take one 60% depth If Depth > 0.6m take 2 measurements and compute the average 20% depth 80% depth –Average the two readings

28 Measuring Streamflow Discharge  Two method of measurement  Mean section method  Mid section method

29 Mean section

30 Mid section

31 Example Calculation: Find the Q for this case: V = 0.25 N Where V= velocity (m/s) N = number of revolution/s a)Using mean-section method b)Using mid-section method

32 Example Calculation: Distance from edge, b (m) Depth, d (m) Rev/min 0.6d0.2d0.8d

33 Mean-section method Velocity (m/s) bd0.6d 0.2d 0.8dV avg (V i + V i+1 )/ 2 AQ Q = m 3 /s

34 Mid-section method Velocity (m/s) bd0.6d 0.2d 0.8dV avg (b i+1 - b i-1 )/2 qi Q = m 3 /s

35 Dilution gauging  Using tracer/chemical at upstream  For uneven stream base, good method for turbulent streams  Q can be determined by tracer quantity and concentration at upstream and downstream (after dilution) using mass transfer equation.  need to use tracer that is a) easily soluble, b) have no or very low natural concentrations in stream, c) be conservative, d) easily detectable at low concentrations, e) ecofriendly, f) affordable

36 Dilution gauging  Example of tracer:  Chemical: Sodium cloride,sodium dicromat,manganese sulphate  Dye: sodium fluoroscein, Rhodamine-WT  Radioactive: Bromine-82,Sodium- 24,Iodine-132  2 method  Sudden/Gulp injection  Constant rate injection

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38 Dilution gauging: Constant Rate Injection C 1,q C 2 (q+Q) Q

39 Example calculation  20 g/L of tracer injected at upstream of the river at rate 0.01 L/s. Concentration of tracers at downstream is 5 ppb. Estimate the discharge of the river at downstrean. Assume the initial concentration of tracer is very low. Solution: q =0.01 L/s = m 3 /s C 1 = 20 g/L = g/m 3 C 2 = 5 ppb = 5 x g/L = 5 x g/m 3 Q = C 1 /C 2 x q = (20 000/5 x )x = 40 m 3 /s = L/s

40 Conversion factor  1 g/L =  1 mg/L = = 1 ppm  1 μg/L = = 1 x g/m 3 = 1 ppb

41 Dilution gauging: Sudden Injection Where: V = volume of tracers (m3) t1=time of tracer induced at upstream(point 1) t2=time of tracer detected at point 2 C 1,V 1 C 2, Q 2 Q

42 Example Calculation:  100 liter NaCL at concentration 10 g/L induced at river upstream. Average NaCl concentration after an hour at 800 m distance, at downstream are 0.02 mg/L. Estimate the river discharge at downstream.  Solution:

43 - Measure speed of small particles in the flow - Can also track and subtract bottom speed Sonic methods

44 Some gages are designed to measure just high flows

45 Hydraulic Structures  Used for small watersheds – such as experimental watersheds – where need accurate, continuous flow measurements.  Two types:  Weirs  Flumes

46 Weirs  Obstruct flow and force it through a notch  Stage-Q relationship established mathematically for different types of notches

47 Weirs  Generally used in small streams  Various types  V-notch for accurate low flow  Rectangular Handles higher flows Less accurate at low flows  Trapezoidal -- an intermediate weir  Concerns  Sediment & debris are trapped  Leakage

48 Trapezoidal Weir

49 Trapezoidal Weir

50 Rectangular Weir

51 90 degree V-notch Weir

52 V-notch Weir  For small river  Q (m 3 /s) can be determine using equation:   Where:  H = head loss  Cd = discharge coefficient  g gravity acceleration  θ angle of the v-notch

53 90º V-notch Weir Q = 2.36C d H 5/2

54 Flumes An artificial open channel built to contain flow within a designed cross-section and length No impoundment Water height in flume measured with a stilling well

55 Flumes  Used to measure flow in:  water and wastewater treatment plants  irrigation channels  agricultural runoff  runoff plots – research applications  small watersheds

56 Large Crest Flumes

57 Long-throated Flume

58 Short-throated Flume

59 Parshall Flume

60 H Flume

61 Slope Area Method  Manning Equation  Chezy Equation

62 Estimating Discharge (Q) from channel features: Manning’s Equation v = average velocity (m/s) R = hydraulic radius = [Area/wetted perimeter] S = Energy gradient, Approximated by water surface slope n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

63 Chezy Equation  Based on Chezy formula,  with A = flow cross-section area; C = Chezy Coefficient; R = hydraulic radius, A/P; and S = channel slope.  For a given section, = constant whereas for a wide channel (W>10D) RD. Therefore,

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