Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Contingency of Reinforcement Figure 6.3 Stimulus situation (must complete work) Response (completes assignment) Reinforcement (plays game) Effect (greater possibility of completing work in the future) 27

Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Categories of Reinforcers Table 6.1 Primary Secondary 1.Biological (natural) a. food, liquids, sensory pleasures 1. Social a. facial expression b. proximity c. words d. privileges 2. Activity a. pleasant or “high-frequency” behavior 3. Generalized a. tokens b. points c. anything that can be used to obtain pleasure CategoryTypesUsage Giving candy, ice cream, soft music (used with young or exceptional students) Frowning, smiling Changing seats Praise Appointment to leadership role Playing a game following completion of class assignment Allowing student who compiles 25 points to select pleasant activity, such as free reading, playing a game, building models 28

Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schedules of Reinforcement Table 6.2 Fixed ratio (FR) Variable ratio (VR) Fixed interval (FI) Variable interval (VI) Reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses—for example, every tenth response. Number of responses needed for reinforcement varies—ten responses, reinforcement; five responses, reinforcement. Reinforcement depends on a fixed time—for example, every thirty seconds. Time between reinforcements varies. Activity slows after reinforce- ment and then picks up. Greatest activity of all schedules results. Activity increases as deadline nears (e.g., students must finish paper by a certain date). Steady activity results. Type Meaning Outcome 29

Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Four Processes Important for Observational Learning 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Motor reproduction processes 4. Motivational processes 30

Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Four Sources for Self-Efficacy 1. Enactive mastery experiences 2. Vicarious experiences 3. Verbal persuasion 4. Physiological and affective states 31

Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Alberto and Troutman’s Four Levels of Punishment Level I Strategies – Differential reinforcement Level II Strategies – Withholding reinforcement Level III Strategies – Response cost – Time-out procedures – Nonseclusionary time-out – Seclusionary time-out Level IV Strategies – Aversive stimuli 32

Elliott, Kratochwill, Littlefield Cook, and Travers, Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, Third Edition. Copyright © 2000 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Teaching Self-Control l Self-assessment l Self-monitoring l Self-reinforcement 33