Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Cognition, 8e Chapter 5 Long-Term Memory

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Chapter Introduction working memory long-term memory episodic memory semantic memory procedural memory encoding retrieval autobiographical memory

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory Levels of processing Craik & Lockhart (1972) Levels-of-processing approach/depth-of- processing approach—argues that deep, meaningful processing of information leads to more accurate recall than shallow, sensory kinds of processing. In general, people achieve a deeper level of processing when they extract more meaning from a stimulus.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory Levels of processing Levels of Processing and Memory for General Material Deeper levels of processing should produce better recall. meaning vs. physical appearance distinctiveness elaboration Deep processing also enhances memory for faces.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory Levels of processing Levels of Processing and the Self- Reference Effect self-reference effect 1.Representative research Rogers and coauthors (1977) visual characteristics acoustic characteristics semantic characteristics self-reference instructions meta-analysis

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory Levels of processing Levels of Processing and the Self- Reference Effect 2.Participants' failure to follow instructions Foley and coauthors (1999) Participants sometimes use self- reference even when instructed to use shallow processing. The extent of the self-reference effect may be underestimated.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory Levels of processing Levels of Processing and the Self- Reference Effect 3.Factors responsible for the self-reference effect The "self" provides a rich set of cues. Self-reference instructions encourage people to consider how their personal traits are connected with one another (elaboration). Material associated with the self is rehearsed more frequently.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle encoding-specificity principle Recall is better if the context during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding. When the two contexts do not match, you are more likely to forget the items.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Research on Encoding Specificity Marian and Fausey (2006) bilingual English/Spanish speakers stories and questions (in either English or Spanish) match or mismatch of story and question languages

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Research on Encoding Specificity Marian and Fausey (2006) (continued) People were relatively accurate if they had heard the story and answered the questions in the same language. People were less accurate if they heard the story in one language and answered the questions in a different language.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5

Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Research on Encoding Specificity 1.Different kinds of memory tasks recall task vs. recognition task real-life vs. laboratory short delay vs. long delay Encoding specificity is typically strong in recall, real-life, long-delay situations. 2.Physical versus mental context

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity Encoding specificity can override level of processing. Bransford and coauthors (1979) various levels-of-processing tasks during encoding test with rhyming task

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity Bransford and coauthors (1979) (continued) People perform better on rhyming test if they had originally performed the shallow- encoding task, rather than the deep- encoding task.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity Bransford and coauthors (1979) (continued) Semantic processing is effective only if the retrieval conditions also emphasize deeper, more meaningful features.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory The Effects of Context: The Encoding-Specificity Principle Levels of Processing and Encoding Specificity To determine how to store information, we need to figure out the characteristics of the retrieval task.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory emotion mood 1.We typically remember pleasant stimuli more accurately than other stimuli. 2.We typically recall material more accurately if our mood matches the emotional nature of the material, an effect called mood congruence.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion Pollyanna Principle—Pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items. 1.More accurate recall for pleasant items. list of words: pleasant, neutral, unpleasant pleasant > unpleasant > neutral Balch (2006) and Demonstration 5.2

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 1.More accurate recall for pleasant items. (continued) Waring and Kensinger (2011) photos of stimuli judged to be positive, negative, or neutral photo backgrounds recognition test

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 1.More accurate recall for pleasant items. (continued) Waring and Kensinger (2011) recognition of neutral stimuli substantially lower than positive or negative stimulus/background tradeoffs memory for real-life events

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 2.More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli. Do people remember commercials less accurately when they are associated with violent media?

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 2.More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated with pleasant stimuli. Bushman (1998) significantly better recall for commercials that had appeared in the nonviolent film Anger and violence in a program typically reduce memory accuracy for information in a commercial.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 3.Over time, unpleasant memories fade more than pleasant memories. Walker and coauthors (1997) personal events; pleasantness and intensity ratings changes in pleasantness ratings over time

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Memory for Items Differing in Emotion 3.Over time, unpleasant memories fade more than pleasant memories. Walker and coauthors (1997) (continued) positivity effect What about people with a tendency toward depression?

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Mood Congruence mood congruence—People tend to recall material more accurately if it is congruent with their current mood.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Mood Congruence Murray and colleagues (1999) students with tendencies toward depression vs. students without depressive tendencies positive- and negative-trait words; recall task

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Mood Congruence Murray and colleagues (1999) (continued) The nondepressed individuals recalled a greater overall percentage of the words than did the depression-prone individuals. The nondepressed students recalled a significantly greater percentage of positive words than negative words.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Encoding in Long-Term Memory In Depth: Emotions, Mood, and Memory Mood Congruence Murray and colleagues (1999) (continued) The depression-prone students recalled a slightly greater percentage of negative words than positive words. In general, nondepressed people typically recall more positive than negative material. In contrast, depression-prone people tend to recall more negative material.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Definitions and Examples Explicit Memory Tasks recall recognition

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Definitions and Examples Implicit Memory Tasks assesses memory indirectly memory revealed without conscious effort to remember word completion repetition priming task

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Representative Research Even if people cannot remember stimuli when they are tested using an explicit memory task, they may remember the stimuli when tested using an implicit memory task. dissociation effects

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Representative Research Example On an explicit memory task, people typically recall more words if they have used deep levels of processing to encode them. However, on an implicit memory test, semantic and perceptual encoding may produce similar memory scores, or people may even score lower if they had used semantic encoding.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Representative Research Example (continued) Therefore, depth of processing has a large positive effect on memory scores on Test A (an explicit memory task), but depth of processing has no effect or even a negative effect on memory scores on Test B (an implicit memory task).

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks Representative Research The research on implicit memory illustrates that people often know more than they can reveal in actual recall.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Individuals with Amnesia amnesia retrograde amnesia—loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage anterograde amnesia—loss of the ability to form memories for events that have occurred after brain damage

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Individuals with Amnesia hippocampus H.M. Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970) presented a list of words to individuals with anterograde amnesia explicit memory tasks implicit memory tasks

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Expertise The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise In general, researchers have found a strong positive correlation between knowledge about an area and memory performance in that area. People who are expert in one area may not display outstanding general memory skills. Memory experts typically do not receive exceptional scores on tests of intelligence.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Expertise Own-Ethnicity Bias You are generally more accurate in identifying members of your own ethnic group than members of another ethnic group.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Expertise Own-Ethnicity Bias The own-ethnicity bias is related to expertise, because people typically have more opportunities to interact with individuals from their own ethnic group, rather than other ethnic groups. Expertise can develop with frequent experiences and interactions. Faces representing your own ethnic group acquire distinctiveness.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Expertise Own-Ethnicity Bias research with different ethnic groups research in the United States, Europe, and Great Britain Walker and Hewstone (2006) White or South Asian British high school students altered photographs on a continuum from "South Asian" to "White" same/different task

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5

Retrieval in Long-Term Memory Expertise Own-Ethnicity Bias Walker and Hewstone (2006) (continued) The British White students made more accurate judgments for White faces than for South Asian faces. In contrast, the British South Asian students were equally accurate for both kinds of faces. role of contact overcoming own-ethnicity bias? own-age bias

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory autobiographical memory—memory for events and issues related to yourself ecological validity

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Characteristics of Autobiographical Memory 1.Although we sometimes make errors, our memory is often accurate for a variety of information (Theme 2). 2.When people do make mistakes, these mistakes generally concern peripheral details and specific information about commonplace events, rather than central information about important events.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Characteristics of Autobiographical Memory 3.Our memories often blend together information from a variety of sources; we actively construct a unified memory at the time of retrieval.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Schemas and Autobiographical Memory schema—general knowledge or expectation based on past experiences consistency bias—tendency to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring source monitoring—trying to identify the origin of a particular memory Marsh and colleagues (1997) open-ended discussion later identify idea as one's own or someone else's accurate self-monitoring "wishful thinking bias" source monitoring failures

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring reality monitoring—trying to identify whether an event really occurred or was imagined

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memories flashbulb memory—memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event Many people believe that they can accurately recall all the minor details about what they were doing at the time of this event.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memories In reality, people make numerous errors in recalling details of national events, even though they claimed that their memories for these events were very vivid.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memories Talarico and Rubin (2003) September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks vs. ordinary event recall testing after 1, 6, or 32 weeks consistent vs. inconsistent details confidence

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5

Autobiographical Memory Flashbulb Memories Students at a college in New York City recalled significantly more factual details about the tragedy compared to students at colleges in California and Hawaii (Pezdek, 2003). Memory accuracy not related to other demographic variables.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Example of Inappropriate Eyewitness Testimony The case of Gary Graham

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony The Post-Event Misinformation Effect Post-Event Misinformation Effect First, people view an event. Then, they are given misleading information about the event. Later on, they mistakenly recall the misleading information, rather than the event they actually saw.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony proactive interference (discussed in Chapter 4) : People have trouble recalling new material because previously learned, old material keeps interfering with new memories. retroactive interference (misinformation effect): People have trouble recalling old material because some recently learned, new material keeps interfering with old memories.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Loftus and coauthors (1978) slides of a car/pedestrian accident stop or yield sign consistent, inconsistent, or neutral information presented 20 minutes to one week after slides recognition task for slides

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5

Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Loftus and coauthors (1978) (continued) People in the inconsistent information condition were much less accurate than people in the other two conditions. They often selected a sign on the basis of the information in the questionnaire, rather than selecting the original slide. faulty source monitoring constructivist approach

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony General Factors 1.People may create memories that are consistent with their schemas. 2.People may make errors in source monitoring. 3.Post-event misinformation may distort people’s recall.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony Other Important Variables 1.Eyewitnesses make more errors if they saw a crime committed during a stressful circumstance, for instance, when someone was carrying a weapon. 2.Eyewitnesses make more errors when there is a long delay between the original event and the time of the testimony..

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony Other Important Variables 3.Eyewitnesses make more errors if the misinformation is plausible. People are also likely to say that an event occurred in their own life (when it really did not) when the event seems consistent with other similar experiences.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony Other Important Variables 4.Eyewitnesses make more errors if there is social pressure. In contrast, the testimony is more accurate when people are allowed to report an event in their own words, when they are given sufficient time, and when they are allowed to respond, "I don’t know".

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony Other Important Variables 5.Eyewitnesses make more errors if someone has provided positive feedback.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy In many situations, participants are almost as confident about their misinformation- based memories as they are about their genuinely correct memories. Memory confidence is not strongly correlated with memory accuracy.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory Eyewitness Testimony The Relationship Between Memory Confidence and Memory Accuracy The majority of law enforcement officers and jurors are not aware that a confident eyewitness is not necessarily an accurate eyewitness.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy recovered-memory perspective: Memory for traumatic events (such as childhood sexual abuse) may be forgotten for many years and then come flooding back into consciousness.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy The Two Contrasting Positions in the Controversy false-memory perspective: Most recovered memories are actually incorrect memories, constructed stores about events that never occurred.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy The Potential for Memory Errors Memory is less than perfect. Social pressure enhances the likelihood of memory errors. The accuracy of childhood memories is not easy to determine.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Arguments for False Memory Roediger and McDermott (1995) & Demo 5.5 lists of associated words false-recall rate of 55% (intrusion errors) Intrusions are common on this task, because each word that does appear on a list is commonly associated with a missing word.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Arguments for False Memory (continued) Research has demonstrated that participants can construct false memories for events during childhood that never actually happened. Most participants do not claim to "remember" the event that did not occur, yet a significant percentage do.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Arguments for Recovered Memory Laboratory studies lack ecological validity. Research shows that people cannot be convinced to create false memories for more embarrassing events, such as having had an enema as a child.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Arguments for Recovered Memory (continued) Researchers have studied individuals whose sexual abuse had been documented by medical professionals or the legal system. Still, some of these individuals fail to recall the episode when interviewed as adults.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Arguments for Recovered Memory (continued) betrayal trauma (Freyd and colleagues) describes how a child may respond adaptively when a trusted parent or caretaker betrays him or her by sexual abuse The child depends on this adult and must actively inhibit memories of abuse in order to maintain an attachment to this person.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Both Perspectives Are at Least Partially Correct Indeed, some people have truly experienced childhood sexual abuse, and they may forget about the abuse for many decades until a critical event triggers their recall.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Both Perspectives Are at Least Partially Correct In contrast, other people have never experienced childhood sexual abuse. However, a suggestion about abuse may create a false memory of childhood experiences that never really occurred.

Cognition, 8e by Margaret W. MatlinChapter 5 Autobiographical Memory The Recovered-Memory/False- Memory Controversy Both Perspectives Are at Least Partially Correct In still other cases, people can provide quite accurate testimony—even years afterwards—about how they have been abused.