Exploring Management Chapter 13 Motivation

Chapter 13 How do human needs influence motivation to work? How do thought processes and decisions affect motivation to work? How does reinforcement influence motivation to work?

13.1 Human Needs and Job Design Maslow described a hierarchy of needs topped by self-actualization Alderfer’s ERG theory deals with existence, relatedness and growth needs McClelland identified acquired needs for achievement, power and affiliation Herzberg’s two-factor theory focuses on higher-order need satisfaction The core characteristics model integrates motivation and job design

HUMAN NEEDS Maslow’s Hierarchy Motivation – level, direction and persistence of effort expended at work Maslow’s hierarchy Needs Unfulfilled desires that stimulate people to act Lower order needs Physiological, safety and social needs Higher order needs Esteem and self-actualization Maslow’s hierarchy of needs seems to indicate that higher level needs cannot be satisfied until lower needs are satisfied. This may be true. However, it is very likely that people move up and down Maslow’s scale during their life. Just because you are safe today, does not mean that you will be safe tomorrow. Many who lost their jobs in the recent economic crises discovered this the hard way.

HUMAN NEEDS Maslow’s Hierarchy Employers have many options to motivate employees at every level. The trick is to understand the individuals well enough to know how they are motivated.

HUMAN NEEDS Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence Needs are desires for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Relatedness Needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Growth Needs are desires for continued psychological growth and development. Alderfer’s ERG theory can be thought of as a short form version of Maslow’s hierarchy. Alderfer claimed that these needs exist, in various degrees, simultaneously.

HUMAN NEEDS McClelland’s Acquired Needs Three acquired needs that vary in strength among people Need for Achievement is the desire to do something better, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. Need for Power is the desire to control, influence, or be responsible for other people. Need for Affiliation Is the desire to establish and maintain good relations with other people. Although not exactly the same, McClelland’s acquired needs are similar to Alderfer’s ERG theory needs.

HUMAN NEEDS McClelland’s Acquired Needs Two forms of need for power Need for personal power Need for social power Personal power is manipulative, social power is more socially responsible.

HUMAN NEEDS Herzberg Two-Factor Theory Herzberg defined motivation as “getting others to want to do what you want them to do.” There is a big difference between getting others to do something and getting them to want to do it.

JOB DESIGN Core Characteristics Model Allocation of specific tasks to individuals and groups Job enrichment Adds opportunities for satisfying higher-order needs to a job by adding opportunities for planning and controlling work The basic theory behind core characteristics is that if people have a job that is interesting and rewarding, motivation will follow. Some jobs are limited in the amount of enrichment that can be added like the one pictured here.

JOB DESIGN Core Characteristics Model Five Core Job Characteristics Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback from the job itself Job enrichment attempts to build elements of all five core job characteristics in each job.

JOB DESIGN Core Characteristics Model Job enrichment attempts to build elements of all five core job characteristics in each job.

13.2 Thought Processes and Decisions Equity theory explains how social comparisons motivate individual behavior Expectancy theory considers motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence Goal-setting theory shows that well-chosen and well-set goals can be motivating The following theories attempt to more closely relate individual needs to work performance.

THOUGHT PROCESSES Equity Theory Equity theory explains how social comparisons can motivate individual behavior Perceived negative inequity Attempt to restore equity by working less or quitting Perceived positive inequity Attempt to restore equity by extra effort Adams believed that humans seek equity in their personal and professional lives. If they perceive that they are not being treated fairly, they will take action to change the situation.

THOUGHT PROCESSES Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory considers motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence Expectancy “Can I achieve the desired level of task performance?” Instrumentality “What work outcomes will be received as a result of the performance?” Valence “How highly do I value work outcomes?” Vroom argued that employees are motivated by their expectations regarding the magnitude of their efforts and the potential compensation that they will receive, as well as the probability of receiving the additional compensation.

THOUGHT PROCESSES Expectancy Theory Valence can be tricky. Things that managers consider to be rewards may not be valuable to the employee. This chart suggests how Vroom’s expectancy theory might be applied.

THOUGHT PROCESSES Goal Setting Theory Goal-setting theory shows that well-chosen and well-set goals can be motivating Remember that, although goals should be challenging, they must be achievable. Employees will not pursue unrealistic goals for very long.

Punishment connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences 13.3 Reinforcement Operant conditioning influences behavior by controlling its consequences Positive reinforcement connects desirable behavior with pleasant consequences Punishment connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences Reinforcement theory addresses how to get employees to do what you want them to do. This is not the same definition put forth by Herzberg which is getting employees to want to do what you want them to do.

REINFORCEMENT Law of Effect The law of effect states that behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated. In the workplace, consequences are used to reinforce behaviors that are desired such as safety, productivity, positive attitude and professionalism. Often the consequences are administered by a work group to maintain the culture.

REINFORCEMENT Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning – B. F. Skinner Influences behavior by controlling its consequences. Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated Behavior that receives an unpleasant consequence probably won’t be repeated. Positive reinforcement may be as simple as saying “Good Job”. Negative reinforcement might be demonstrated when a manager stops nagging about a behavior when the employee stops doing it.

REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement Strengthens positive behavior Approval Recognition Rewards Rewards must be administered only for the correct behavior and within a reasonable time frame.

REINFORCEMENT Negative Reinforcement Unpleasant consequence is avoided if desirable behavior is exhibited Extinction Desired consequence is removed if undesirable behavior is exhibited Punishment Discourages a behavior by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence Rewards must be administered only for the correct behavior and within a reasonable time frame.

REINFORCEMENT Operant Conditioning Here is an example of how reinforcement theory might be applied in a production environment. Notice the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment.

REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement connects desirable behavior with pleasant consequences Law of contingent reinforcement Reward only when desirable behavior is demonstrated Law of immediate reinforcement Reward immediately after the desirable behavior is demonstrated Rewards must be administered only for the correct behavior and within a reasonable time frame.

REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement Shaping Creating a new behavior by positive reinforcement of similar behaviors Continuous reinforcement Reward every time behavior is exhibited Intermittent reinforcement Reward behavior periodically Continuous reinforcement is less confusing than intermittent reinforcement and the desired behavior is learned more quickly.

REINFORCEMENT Punishment Connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences Deny a reward No raise/pay reduction Reprimand Punishment must be appropriate for the behavior.