NIST Foundations of Ontological Analysis Chris Welty, Vassar College

NIST Part I The Business Case

NIST 3 What is Ontology? A discipline of Philosophy –Meta-physics dates back to Artistotle –Ontology dates back to 17th century –The science of what is Borrowed by AI community –McCarthy (1980) calls for “a list of things that exist” Evolution of meaning –Now refers to domain modeling, conceptual modeling, knowledge engineering, etc.

NIST 4 What is an Ontology? complexity a catalog a set of general logical axioms a glossary a set of text files a thesaurus a collection of taxonomies a collection of frames with automated reasoning without automated reasoning

NIST 5 Why Ontology? “Semantic Interoperability” –Generalized database integration –Virtual Enterprises –e-commerce Information Retrieval –Surface techniques hit barrier –Query answering over document sets –Natural Language Processing

NIST 6 Need more knowledge of what terms mean Same term, different concept Book Manual “The old man and the sea” “Windows XP Service Guide” “The old man and the sea” “Windows XP Service Guide” DB-  DB-  Unintended models occur during integration

NIST 7 Solution Knowledge DB-  –  xy Book(x)  author-of(y,x)  Person(y) –  xy Manual(x)  author-of(y,x)  Company(y) Better captures intended meaning –Prevents (this) unintended model Allows better standardization

NIST 8 Need more knowledge of what terms mean Less expressive  More expressive Horse –Name –Age Name: Top Hat/Billings Age: 3 DB-  DB-  The same object becomes two. Horse –Name –Age –Owner Name: Top Hat Owner: Billings Age: 3

NIST 9 Solution Knowledge DB-  –Identity Criteria: Same name DB-  –Identity Criteria: Same name and owner Better captures intended meaning

NIST 10 Need more knowledge about what the user wants “Can the user please be more specific?” Search for “Washington” (the person) –Google: 26,000,000 hits –45th entry is the first relevant –Noise: places Search for “George Washington” –Google: 2,200,00 hits –3rd entry is relevant –Noise: institutions, other people, places

NIST 11 Solution Knowledge Domain Knowledge –Person George Washington George Washington Carver –Place Washington, D.C. –Artifact George Washington Bridge –Organization George Washington University Semantic Markup of question and corpora –What Washington are you talking about?

NIST 12 Need more knowledge about the possible answers “ Can the user please put more of the answer in the question?” Search for “Artificial Intelligence Research” –Misses subfields of the general field –Misses references to “AI” and “Machine Intelligence” (synonyms) –Noise: non-research pages, other fields, Mensa types

NIST 13 Solution Knowledge Domain Knowledge –Sub-fields (of AI) Knowledge Representation Machine Vision etc. Neural networks –Synonyms (for AI) Artificial Intelligence Machine Intelligence Query Expansion –Add disjuncted “general terms” to search –Add disjuncted “synonyms” to search Semantic Markup of question and corpora –Add “general terms” (categories) –Add “synonyms”

NIST 14 Need more knowledge of reasoning Allies of my enemies are my…? What are all the enemies of Iraq in the Persian Gulf according to the CIA World Fact Book? –“Persian Gulf” appears as a region and a body of water. –Misses: allies of enemies –Noise: countries with interests in the Persian Gulf, companies, ships, oil platforms

NIST 15 Solution: Knowledge + Reasoning (Cycorp/SRI HPKB) Some axioms –Enemy of a country is a country –Ally of an enemy is an enemy –Enemy is reflexive –Countries are located in regions Reformulate –  (country   located-in. (region  name = “Persian Gulf”)  enemy. (country  name = “Iraq”))

NIST 16 Solution Theme: More Knowledge Ontologies - at least part of the solution “more semantics”, “richer knowledge” … ontologies Idealized view –Knowledge-enabled search engines act as virtual librarians Determine what you “really mean” Discover relevant sources Find what you “really want” –Knowledge-enabled web integrates standardized terms Requires common knowledge on all ends –Semantic linkage between questioning agent, answering agent and knowledge sources, etc. Hence the “Semantic Web”

NIST 17 Key Challenges Must build/design, analyze/evaluate, maintain/extend, and integrate/reconcile ontologies Little guidance on how to do this –In spite of the pursuit of many syntactic standards –Where do we start when building an ontology? –What criteria do we use to evaluate ontologies? –How are ontologies extended? –How are different ontological choices reconciled? Ontological Modeling and Analysis –Does your model mean what you intend? –Will it produce the right answers?

NIST 18 Most ontology efforts fail Why? –The quality of the ontology dictates its impact –Poor ontology, poor results –Ontologies are built by people …The average IQ is 100

NIST 19 Contributions Methodology to help analyze & build consistent ontologies –Formal foundation of ontological analysis –Meta-properties for analysis –“Upper Level” distinctions Standard set of upper-level concepts Standardizing semantics of ontological relations Common ontological modeling pitfalls –Misuse of intended semantics Specific recent work focused on clarifying the subsumption (is-a, subclass) relation

NIST 20 Upper Level Where do I start? Particulars –Concrete Location, event, object, substance, … –Abstract information, story, collection, … Universals –Property (Class) –Relation Subsumption (subclass), instantiation, constitution, composition (part)

NIST 21 Subsumption The most pervasive relationship in ontologies –Influence of taxonomies and OO AKA: Is-a, a-kind-of, specialization-of, subclass (Brachman, 1983) –“horse is a mammal” Capitalizes on general knowledge –Helps deal with complexity, structure –Reduces requirement to acquire and represent redundant specifics What does it mean?  x  (x)   (x) Every instance of the subclass is necessarily an instance of the superclass

NIST 22 Overloading Subsumption Common modeling pitfalls Instantiation Constitution Composition Disjunction Polysemy

NIST 23 Instantiation (1) T21 My ThinkPad (s# xx123) ThinkPad Model Ooops… Question: What ThinkPad models do you sell? Answer should NOT include My ThinkPad -- nor yours. Does this ontology mean that My ThinkPad is a ThinkPad Model?

NIST 24 Instantiation (2) T Series My ThinkPad (s# xx123) ThinkPad ModelNotebook Computer model T 21

NIST 25 Composition (1) Memory Disk Drive Computer Question: What Computers do you sell? Answer should NOT include Disk Drives or Memory. Micro Drive

NIST 26 Composition (2) Memory Disk Drive Computer Micro Drive part-of

NIST 27 Disjunction (1) Memory Disk Drive Computer Micro Drive has-part Computer Part Flashcard-110 Camera-15 has-part Unintended model: flashcard-110 is a computer-part

NIST 28 Disjunction (2) Computer has-part Disk Drive  Memory  …

NIST 29 Polysemy (1) ( Mikrokosmos) Abstract Entity Physical Object Book Question: How many books do you have on Hemingway? Answer: 5,000 …..

NIST 30 Polysemy (2) (WordNet) Abstract Entity Physical Object Book Sense 1 Book Sense 2 ….. Biography of Hemingway

NIST 31 Constitution (1) (WordNet) Amount of Matter Physical Object Entity Computer Clay Metal Question: What types of matter will conduct electricity? Answer should NOT include computers.

NIST 32 Constitution (2) Amount of Matter Physical Object Entity Computer ClayMetal constituted

NIST 33 Technical Conclusions Subsumption is an overloaded relation –Influence of OO –Force fit of simple taxonomic structures –Leads to misuse of is-a semantics Ontological Analysis –A collection of well-defined knowledge structuring relations –Methodology for their consistent application Meta-Properties for ontological relations Provide basis for disciplined ontological analysis

NIST 34 Applications of Methodology Ontologyworks Ontoweb TICCA, WedODE, Galen, … Strong interest from and participation in –Semantic web (w3c) –IEEE SUO –Wordnet –Lexical resources

NIST Part II Formalization

NIST 36 Approach Draw fundamental notions from Formal Ontology Establish a set of useful meta-properties, based on behavior wrt above notions Explore the way these meta-properties combine to form relevant property kinds Explore the taxonomic constraints imposed by these property kinds.

NIST 37 Basic Philosophical Notions ( taken from Formal Ontology) Identity –How are instances of a class distinguished from each other Unity –How are all the parts of an instance isolated Essence –Can a property change over time Dependence –Can an entity exist without some others

NIST 38 Essence and Rigidity Certain entities have essential properties. –Hammers must be hard. –John must be a person. Certain properties are essential to all their instances (compare being a person with being hard). These properties are rigid - if an entity is ever an instance of a rigid property, it must always be.

NIST 39 Formal Rigidity    is rigid (+R):  x  (x)   (x) –e.g. Person, Apple   is non-rigid (-R):  x  (x)  ¬  (x) –e.g. Red, Male    is anti-rigid (~R):  x  (x)  ¬  (x) –e.g. Student, Agent

NIST 40 Rigidity Constraint +R  ~R Why?  x P(x)  Q(x) Q ~R P +R O10

NIST 41 Identity and Unity Identity: is this my dog? Unity: is the collar part of my dog?

NIST 42 Identity criteria Classical formulation:  (x)   (y)  (  (x,y)  x = y) Generalization:  (x,t)   (y,t’)  (  (x,y,t,t’)  x = y) (synchronic: t = t’ ; diachronic: t ≠ t’) In most cases,  is based on the sameness of certain characteristic features:  (x,y, t,t’) =  z (  (x,z,t)   (y,z,t’))

NIST 43 A Stronger Notion: Global ICs Local IC:  (x,t)   (y,t’)  (  (x,y,t,t’)  x = y) Global IC (rigid properties only):  (x,t)  (  (y,t’)   (x,y,t,t’)  x = y)

NIST 44 Identity Conditions along Taxonomies Adding ICs: –Polygon: same edges, same angles Triangle: two edges, one angle –Equilateral triangle: one edge Just inheriting ICs: –Person Student

NIST 45 Identity meta-properties Supplying (global) identity (+O) –Having some “own” IC that doesn’t hold for a subsuming property Carrying (global) identity (+I) –Having an IC (either own or inherited) Not carrying (global) identity (-I)

NIST 46 Identity Disjointness Constraint Properties with incompatible ICs are disjoint Besides being used for recognizing sortals, ICs impose constraints on them, making their ontological nature explicit: Examples: sets vs. ordered sets amounts of matter vs. assemblies

NIST 47 Unity Criteria An object x is a whole under  iff  is an equivalence relation that binds together all the parts of x, such that P(y,x)  (P(z,x)   y,z)) but not  y,z)   x(P(y,x)  P(z,x)) P is the part-of relation  can be seen as a generalized indirect connection

NIST 48 Unity Meta-Properties If all instances of a property  are wholes under the same relation  carries unity (+U) When at least one instance of  is not a whole, or when two instances of  are wholes under different relations,  does not carry unity (-U) When no instance of  is a whole,  carries anti-unity (~U)

NIST 49 Unity Disjointness Constraint Properties with incompatible UCs are disjoint +U  ~U

NIST 50 Property Dependence Does a property holding for x depend on something else besides x? (property dependence) –P(x)   y Q(y) –y should not be a part of x Example: Student/Teacher, customer/vendor

NIST 51 Basic Property Kinds Table

NIST 52 Sortals, categories, and other properties Sortals (horse, triangle, amount of matter, person, student...) –Carry identity –Usually correspond to nouns –High organizational utility –Main subclasses: types and roles Categories (universal, particular, event, substance...) –No identity –Useful generalizations for sortals –Characterized by a set of (only necessary) formal properties –Good organizational utility Other non-sortals (red, big, decomposable, eatable, dependent, singular...) –No identity –Correspond to adjectives –Span across different sortals –Limited organizational utility (but high semantic value)

NIST 53 A formal ontology of properties Property Non-sortal -I Role ~R+D Sortal +I Formal Role Attribution -R-D Category +R Mixin -D Type +O Quasi-type -O Non-rigid -R Rigid +R Material role Anti-rigid ~R Phased sortal -D +L

NIST 54 The Backbone Taxonomy Assumption: no entity without identity Since identity is supplied by types, every entity must instantiate a type The taxonomy of types spans the whole domain Together with categories, types form the backbone taxonomy, which represents the invariant structure of a domain (rigid properties spanning the whole domain)

NIST 55 Taxonomic Constraints +R  ~R -I  +I -U  +U +U  ~U -D  +D Incompatible IC’s are disjoint Incompatible UC’s are disjoint Categories subsume everything Roles can’t subsume types

NIST 56 Idealized view of an ontology

NIST Part III Extended Example

NIST 58 Dealing with Ontological Relativism Deciding about the meta-properties carried by a given property… Is up to YOU ! But a common agreement must be achieved about the formal meaning (and practical utility) of meta-properties

NIST 59 Property Analysis Entity, Location Entity –Everything is an entity –-I-U-D+R –Category Location –A generalized region of space. –+O: by its parts (mereologically extensional). –~U: no way to isolate a location –-D+R –Type

NIST 60 Property Analysis Amount of Matter, Red Amount of Matter –unstructured /scattered “stuff” as lumps of clay or some bricks –+O: mereologically extensional –~U: intrinsically no unity –-D+R –Type Red –Really Red-thing, the set of all red-colored entities –-I-U-D-R –Formal Attribution

NIST 61 Property Analysis Agent, Group Agent –An entity playing a part in some event –-I-U: no universal IC/UC –+D: on the event/action participating in –~R: no instance is necessarily an agent –Formal role Group –An unstructured collection of wholes –+O: same-members –~U: unstructured, no unity. – -D+R –Type

NIST 62 Property Analysis Physical Object, Living Being Physical Object –Isolated material objects. –+O: same spatial location (only synchronic, no common diachronic IC). –+U: Topological –-D+R –Type Living Being –+O: same-DNA (only nec.) –+U: biological unity –-D+R –Type

NIST 63 Property Analysis Food, Animal Food –+I-O~U: amt. of matter –+D: something that eats it. –~R: being food is not necessary... –Material Role Animal –+O: same-brain –+U: biological unity –-D+R –Type

NIST 64 Property Analysis Legal Agent, Group of People Legal Agent –A legally recognized entity –+L: All legal systems have a defined IC, has- same-legal-ID –-U: no universal unity –+D: on the legal body that recognizes it –~R: not necessary –Material Role Group of People –See Group –+I-O~U-D+R –Quasi-type

NIST 65 Property Analysis Social Entity, Organization Social Entity –A group of people together for social reasons –-I: no universal IC –+U: social-connection –-D+R –category Organization –A group of people together, with roles that define some structure –+O: same-mission and way of operating –+U: functional –-D+R –Type

NIST 66 Property Analysis Fruit Fruit –An individual fruit, such as an orange or bannana –+O: same-plant, same- shape, etc. (only nec.) –+U: topological –-D+R –Type

NIST 67 Property Analysis Apple, Red Apple Apple –+O: shape, color, skin pattern (only nec) –+U: topological –-D+R –Type Red-Apple –+I-O: from Apple –+U: from Apple –-D –~R: no red apple is necessarily red –type-attribution mixin

NIST 68 Property Analysis Vertebrate, Person Vertebrate –Really vertebrate- animal –A biological classification that adds new membership criteria (has-backbone) –+I-O: from animal –+U: from animal –-D+R –quasi-type Person –+O: same-fingerprint –+U: from animal –-D+R –Type

NIST 69 Property Analysis Butterfly, Caterpillar Butterfly –+L: same-wing-pattern –+U: biological –-D –~R: the same entity can be something else (a caterpillar) –Phased sortal Caterpillar –+L: spots, legs, color –+U: biological –-D –~R: caterpillars become butterflies and change their IC –Phased sortal

NIST 70 Property Analysis Country Country –A place recognized by convention as autonomous –+L: government, sub-regions –+U: countries are countable (heuristic) –-D –~R: some countries do not exist as countries any more (e.g. Prussia) but are still places –Phased sortal

NIST 71 Entity Fruit Physical object Group of people Country Food Animal Legal agent Amount of matter Group Living being Location Agent Red Red apple Person Vertebrate Apple Caterpillar Butterfly Organization Social entity assign meta-properties

NIST 72 Remove non-rigid properties Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Food +I-O~U+D~R Country +L+U-D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Red apple +I-O+U-D~R Red -I-U-D-R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R

NIST 73 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links ~U can’t subsume +U Living being can change parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs) Living being is constituted of matter

NIST 74 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links ~U can’t subsume +U Living being can change parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs) Living being is constituted of matter

NIST 75 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links ~U can’t subsume +U Physical objects can change parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs) Physical object is constituted of matter

NIST 76 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links ~U can’t subsume +U Physical objects can change parts and remain the same, but amounts of matter can not (incompatible ICs) Physical object is constituted of matter

NIST 77 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links Meta-properties fine Identity-check fails: when an entity stops being an animal, it does not stop being a physical object (when an animal dies, its body remains) Constitution again

NIST 78 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links Meta-properties fine Identity-check fails: when an entity stops being an animal, it does not stop being a physical object (when an animal dies, its body remains) Constitution again

NIST 79 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links ~U can’t subsume +U A group, and group of people, can’t change parts - it becomes a different group A social entity can change parts - it’s more than just a group (incompatible IC) Constitution again

NIST 80 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze taxonomic links ~U can’t subsume +U A group, and group of people, can’t change parts - it becomes a different group A social entity can change parts - it’s more than just a group (incompatible IC) Constitution again

NIST 81 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Phased Sortals For phased sortals: what do they phase into? Country is anti-rigid because it is representing multiple senses of country: a geographical region and a political entity. Split the two senses into two concepts, both rigid, both types. Country +L+U-D~R

NIST 82 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Phased Sortals There is a relationship between the two, but not subsumption. Country +L+U-D~R Geographical Region +O-U-D+R

NIST 83 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Phased Sortals Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Caterpillar phases into butterfly - a true phased sortal There must be some property from which a single entity can uniquely claim identity across phases Define a rigid property which subsumes only the phases of the same entity. Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R

NIST 84 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Phased Sortals Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R

NIST 85 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Roles Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R ~R can’t subsume +R Really want a type restriction: all agents are animals or social entities. Subsumption is not disjunction!

NIST 86 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Roles Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R ~R can’t subsume +R Really want a type restriction: all agents are animals or social entities. Subsumption is not disjunction!

NIST 87 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Roles Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R ~R can’t subsume +R Another disjunction: all legal agents are countries, persons, or organizations Legal agent +L-U+D~R

NIST 88 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Roles Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R ~R can’t subsume +R Another disjunction: all legal agents are countries, persons, or organizations Legal agent +L-U+D~R

NIST 89 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Roles Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R ~R can’t subsume +R Apple is not necessarily food. A poison-apple, e.g., is still an apple. ~U can’t subsume +U Caterpillars are wholes, food is stuff. Food +I-O~U+D~R

NIST 90 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Roles Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R ~R can’t subsume +R Apple is not necessarily food. A poison-apple, e.g., is still an apple. ~U can’t subsume +U Caterpillars are wholes, food is stuff. Food +I-O~U+D~R

NIST 91 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Analyze Attributions Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R No violations Attributions are discouraged, can be confusing. Often better to use attribute values (i.e. Apple Color red) Food +I-O~U+D~R Red -I-U-D-R Red apple +I-O+U-D~R

NIST 92 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R Food +I-O~U+D~R Red -I-U-D-R Red apple +I-O+U-D~R

NIST 93 Country +O+U-D+R Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R The backbone taxonomy

NIST 94 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Food +I-O~U+D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Red apple +I-O+U-D~R Red -I-U-D-R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Country +O+U-D+R Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R

NIST 95 Entity Fruit Physical object Group of people Country Food Animal Legal agent Amount of matter Group Living being Location Agent Red Red apple Person Vertebrate Apple Caterpillar Butterfly Organization Social entity Before

NIST 96 Entity -I-U-D+R Physical object +O+U-D+R Amount of matter +O~U-D+R Group +O~U-D+R Organization +O+U-D+R Location +O-U-D+R Living being +O+U-D+R Person +O+U-D+R Animal +O+U-D+R Social entity -I+U-D+R Agent -I-U+D~R Apple +O+U-D+R Fruit +O+U-D+R Food +I-O~U+D~R Legal agent +L-U+D~R Group of people +I-O~U-D+R Red apple +I-O+U-D~R Red -I-U-D-R Vertebrate +I-O+U-D+R Caterpillar +L+U-D~R Butterfly +L+U-D~R Country +O+U-D+R Geographical Region +O-U-D+R Lepidopteran +O+U-D+R After

NIST 97 Use OntoClean for all your ontology cleaning needs!

NIST 98 Ontology-driven conceptual modeling Formal Ontological Properties/Relations Useful Property Kinds Ontology-Driven Modeling Principles Minimal Top-Level Ontology User Conceptualization Conceptual Model Ontology Methodology