© S. Hamano and W. Kikuchi 1 Visualizing Japanese Grammar Appendix Shoko Hamano George Washington University

© S. Hamano and W. Kikuchi 2 Particles are divided into sentence-final particles, clause-final particles, topic- related particles, particles connecting nouns to nouns, and particles connecting noun phrases to verbs. All particles mark the functions of the units before them in relation to some other important party. Sentence-final particles connect sentences to speakers and listeners. Particles Sentence-final particles か listener has information; question よ speaker has information; assurance ね shared information; sympathy; confirmation

© S. Hamano and W. Kikuchi 3 Clause-final particles subordinates secondary sentences to main sentences. Particles Clause-final particles から “because” けど / けれど “although” が “although” と “when(ever)” か embeds a question と quotation

© S. Hamano and W. Kikuchi 4 The particles wa and mo link the preceding noun phrases to a contextual set. Particles Topic-related particles は indicates that the preceding item is in the contextual set of items; old information も indicates that the preceding item is added to the contextual set of items; addition

© S. Hamano and W. Kikuchi 5 Some particles connect noun phrases (or nouns) to other noun phrases (or nouns) and expand noun phrases. Particles Particles expanding noun phrases と “and” か “or” とか connects examples や connects examples の the preceding item modifies the following item な the preceding item modifies the following item

© S. Hamano and W. Kikuchi 6 Many particles link preceding noun phrases to predicates (like verbs and adjectives). Particles Particles connecting noun phrases to predicates が subject を direct object に target; recipient; point in time; non-subject participant へ goal で location of an activity; means から source まで “up to” までに “by” より “than” ほど “to the extent of” と co-participant; “with”