Chapter 2 Languagewww.criticalthinking1ce.nelson.com Invitation to Critical Thinking First Canadian Edition Joel Rudinow Vincent E. Barry Mark Letteri

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-2 Overview  Functions of Language  Meaning in Language  Definitions

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-3 Functions of Language  Informative Function  Expressive Function  Directive Function Persuasion Persuasion

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-4 Informative Function  Language used to make claims  Claims can be true or false  Examples: Nunavut became a territory in 1999 Nunavut became a territory in 1999 Second-hand smoke causes cancer in bystanders. Second-hand smoke causes cancer in bystanders.

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-5 Expressive Function  Language used to vent or arouse emotional energy  Emotional energy Can overwhelm common sense Can overwhelm common sense Can reinforce and enhance rational deliberation Can reinforce and enhance rational deliberation  Examples Mean people suck! Mean people suck! Question authority! Question authority!

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-6 Directive Function  Language intended to influence the behaviour of another person  Persuasive language Influences beliefs and motivations Influences beliefs and motivations Incorporates claims and arouses emotional energy Incorporates claims and arouses emotional energy  Example: Hippocrates “Speaking generally, all parts of the body which have a function, if used in moderation and exercised in labours to which each is accustomed, become healthy and age slowly. But if unused and left idle, they come liable to disease, defective in growth, and age quickly.” “Speaking generally, all parts of the body which have a function, if used in moderation and exercised in labours to which each is accustomed, become healthy and age slowly. But if unused and left idle, they come liable to disease, defective in growth, and age quickly.”

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-7 Meaning in Language  Labels and patterns  Conventions of language  Communication breakdown

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-8 Labels and Patterns  Labels Verbal handles Verbal handles Arbitrary Arbitrary  Examples Please pass the butter. Please pass the butter. Where is the restroom? Where is the restroom?  Syntax Patterns or ways of organizing words into sentences Patterns or ways of organizing words into sentences Structural regularities Structural regularities Subject—verb —indirect object—objectSubject—verb —indirect object—object He made me a cup of coffeeHe made me a cup of coffee

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-9 Conventions of Language  Behavioural regularities that we maintain and follow to solve the problems of coordination  The rules of the communication game upon which we agree in order to get things done together  We agree upon the meaning of words (definitions) the meaning of words (definitions) the order in which we use words (syntax) the order in which we use words (syntax)

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-10 Communication Breakdown  Language rules: are arbitrary are arbitrary can and often do change can and often do change can be flexible can be flexible can be informal can be informal can be creative can be creative  Departing from the rules without signalling our audience causes breakdowns in communication causes breakdowns in communication causes confusion causes confusion

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-11 Dimensions of Meaning: Precision and Clarity Ambiguity Ambiguity Equivocation Equivocation Evaluative language Evaluative language Vagueness Vagueness Denotation Denotation Connotation Connotation Extension Extension Intension Intension

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-12 Ambiguity  A term with several conventional meanings  Examples (extensions of the term “bank”) Bank – a noun Bank – a noun any piled up mass, such as snow or cloudsany piled up mass, such as snow or clouds the slope of land adjoining a body of waterthe slope of land adjoining a body of water the cushion of a billiard or pool tablethe cushion of a billiard or pool table a business establishment authorized to receive and safeguard money, lend money at interest, etc.a business establishment authorized to receive and safeguard money, lend money at interest, etc. Bank – a verb Bank – a verb to strike a billiard shot off the cushionto strike a billiard shot off the cushion to tilt an aircraft in flightto tilt an aircraft in flight

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-13 Equivocation  Playing with the meaning of a term between or across senses.  Example: “Odd things arouse human suspicion. Seventeen is an odd number. Therefore, seventeen arouses human suspicion.”

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-14 Vagueness  A term is vague when it involves a large set of possible meanings and we are not clear about the intended sense.  Example: She left her things near the bank. Did she leave them near the cushion of the billiard table? Did she leave them near the cushion of the billiard table? Near the business establishment authorized to receive and safeguard money, lend money at interest, etc.? Near the business establishment authorized to receive and safeguard money, lend money at interest, etc.? Near the edge of the snow piled up near the wall? Near the edge of the snow piled up near the wall? Near the river? Near the river? “Things” is also vague. What did she leave? “Things” is also vague. What did she leave?

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-15 Evaluative Language  Terms that can express worth, value, goodness and the like.  Examples: This is a good car. This is a good car. A university career is a valuable undertaking. A university career is a valuable undertaking.

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-16 Definitions  Definitions Dictionary definitions Dictionary definitions Stipulation Stipulation Abstract words Abstract words Necessary and sufficient conditions Necessary and sufficient conditions Dialogical approach to essential definitions Dialogical approach to essential definitions Genus and differentia Genus and differentia

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-17 Dictionary Definitions  A definition is an explanation of the meaning of a word or term.  Dictionaries Give word histories or etymologies Give word histories or etymologies Give definitions of new words Give definitions of new words Give the conventional definitions Give the conventional definitions Give examples and synonyms Give examples and synonyms Do not give unconventional uses of a word Do not give unconventional uses of a word

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-18 Stipulative Definitions Where conventional usage and understanding are inadequate or unsuitable in some way, definitions of words are stipulated:  To establish a precise meaning for readers  To lay down the terms of an agreement about how a word is to be used and understood in the context of some discourse  Example: a “full time employee” shall be defined as an “employee working 25 hours or more per week”.

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-19 Abstract Words  Words that refer to ideas, concepts, thoughts, and emotions. Concrete Watch Flag Can of tuna Abstract Time Patriotism Food

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-20 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions  Rule things in  Rule other things out  A necessary condition is a characteristic or set of characteristics required for membership in the word's extension.  A sufficient condition is a characteristic or set of characteristics that is by itself adequate for membership in the word's extension.

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-21 Essential Definitions: Dialogical Approach  Step 1 Formulate a definition Formulate a definition  Step 2 Develop an example to test your definition Develop an example to test your definition  Step 3 Revise the original definition to make it more precise Revise the original definition to make it more precise  Step 4 Repeat Steps 2 and 3 Repeat Steps 2 and 3

© 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 2-22 Genus and Differentia spoonutensil A small, shallow bowl with a handle used in eating or stirring watchmachine Portable or wearable device for telling time GenusDifferentiaTerm