Risk and protective factors in post-natal development Birth defects and prematurity place child at risk for developmental difficulties Impact of risk factors depends on post-natal environment -- parent-child relationship -- resources available to the parent

A. Assumptions of Transactional Model Everything depends on everything else RiskprotectiveRisk and protective factors operate at: -- all levels of Bronfenbrenner model -- all stages of development R and P factors affect all developmental tasks: cognition, language, socio-emotional

Person in context and time GENES COGNITIONS ANS CNS MOTIVES AFFECT PERSON BEHAVIOR SUPPORTIVENESS STRUCTURE FAMILY FUNCTIONING COMMUNITY ATTITUDES VIOLENCE LEGAL RESOURCES ATTITUDES STRUCTURE HEALTH SYSTEM SOCIETY

B. Evolution of transactional model in medicine and psychology a. Medicine: biological risk Continuum of reproductive casualty (Pasamanick) Direct relation between severity of impairment and severity of birth defect Conclusion based on retrospective data: (Do people with the same level of readingdisability have the same level of birth defect?). Retrospective study: Given the outcome, try to reconstruct the cause Retrospective study: Given the outcome, try to reconstruct the cause.

Continuum of caretaker casualty (Sameroff) Birth defects of similar severity are associated with range of outcomes Social class and family factors affect the link between severity of birth defects and severity of developmental problems. Based on prospective studies (Do people with same risk factor show the same outcome). Prospective study: Follow people with the same risk factor forward in time Prospective study: Follow people with the same risk factor forward in time.

Pasamanick’s continuum of reproductive casualty Severity of biological injury mildsevere Severity of developmental prblems Normal Severe Normal mild

Continuum of reproductive casualty + Continuum of caretaking casualty = Transactional model Severity of biological injury Severity of developmental problem Normal Severe High risk caretaking environment Low risk caretaking environment Normal

C. Contribution of parent and child to post-natal parent-child relationship Normal term Child’s contribution Premature child’s contribution Nondepressed parent’s contribution Depressed parent’s contribution

Normally Developed Child At Birth 1. Visual discrimination -- movement -- borders of high contrast -- complex stimuli 2. Auditory discrimination -- frequencies within normal voice range -- vocal inflections -- high frequencies 3. Use attentional focus to control adult behavior Mutual reinforcement of feelings of effectiveness

Physically immature or impaired child 1. Less responsive and alert 2. Unreadable cry (respiration problems) 3. More fussy, squirmy

Response of parent of premature/impaired child 1. Less involved with child 2. Hold further from body 3. Touch less 4. Talk less 5. Place in face-to-face positions less A. Parents of premature infants try harder B. Differences decrease over time

Caretaker difficulties: Depressed mothers Reduction in effortful parenting 1. Response to infant: slower, less contingent, less consistent 2. Little positive affect 3. Less likely to use exaggerated speech 4. Can be more hostile, intrusive, or irritable

Infants of depressed mothers 1. Look less at the mother 2. Less happy 3. More fussy and irritable

Parent at risk + Child at risk (Bugenthal study)

D. Broader context of parent-child interaction - - What causes parents to become depressed, compromising caretaker-infant relationships? stressors in broader environment (Vaughn et al study) -- What can help reduce the negative outcomes in troubled caretaker-infant dyads? supports in the broader environment (Pianta et al study, Crockenberg)

Person in context and time GENES COGNITIONS ANS CNS MOTIVES AFFECT PERSON BEHAVIOR SUPPORTIVENESS STRUCTURE FAMILY FUNCTIONING COMMUNITY ATTITUDES VIOLENCE LEGAL RESOURCES ATTITUDES STRUCTURE HEALTH SYSTEM SOCIETY

Community Disadvantage

Linking stress, distress, parenting, child difficulties StressorsDistressReduction in effortful parenting Difficult child behavior - interpersonal -noninter- personal

Linking stress, distress, parenting, child difficulties StressorsDistressReduction in effortful parenting Difficult child behavior - interpersonal -noninter- personal SupportSupport

Stress

Stress and changes in attachment security Stress and changes in attachment security Minnesota Low Income Sample

How stress and support affect attachment Pianta, Sroufe, & Egeland Stress ----> decline in maternal sensitivity (responding appropriately to child) Support ---> increase in maternal sensitivity

Example: Crockenberg study Outcome: Infant Attachment at 12 mo Outcome: Infant Attachment at 12 mo. (Strange situation) Predictor variables: 1. Mother's responsiveness (3 mo.) (Time to respond to child distress) 2. Irritability ( 1 week) (Neonatal Behavioral Assessment) 3. Social support (3 mo.) (Mother's report of support - stress) Findings: 1. More support ----> Less insecure babies 2. Mother's unresponsiveness & infant irritability -----> insecure attachment only if support is low

Minnesota Study: Adult BPD Disorganized attachment Maltreatment Difficult Child Temperament Maternal Stress Maternal Hostility Note: Supportive adults promoted adult health

F. Implications of transactional model for research and intervention InterventionsInterventions --> reduce risk, increase protective factors multi-riskInterventions usually with multi-risk families: high risk, low protection Even if experiment works for group as whole it may not work for subgroup most in need