 What is a primary source?  not editorial introductions, comments, footnotes  Leading class discussion: 10 March  Colin, Pasha, Curtis  article by David Parrot in The Military Revolution Debate (on reserve)  article by Derek Croxton, Journal of Military History  Leading class discussion: 12 March  Thomas, Mark  article by Mortimer in Early Modern Military History (on reserve)

 Pyrenees: /pyrenees.htm /pyrenees.htm  Franco-Spanish War, : franco_spanish_war_1635.htm franco_spanish_war_1635.htm  Spain’s War with France and the Dutch Republic: thirty_years_war_1635.htm thirty_years_war_1635.htm

1. Why did Spain decline after 1635? 2. How can we characterize the war in the Empire after 1635?

 War in Italy,  France’s objective  close Valtellina pass  restore control to Protestants  Henri de Rohan  French victory 1635  reverse 1636  Spain’s “alliance with heretics” (p. 647) to regain transit through Valtellina  lack of Protestant support for French conflict with Milan

 War in Italy  civil war in Savoy ( )  France vs. Spain ( )  stalemate  death of Urban VIII (1644)  Innocent X ( )

 Attack on Spain  Pyrenees  two points of invasion  West: Fuenterrabia  East: Perpignan  East: Salces  1638: West  1639: East  Salces falls

 Revolt in Catalonia, 1640  French figinting in Rousillon and Lerida  Revolt of Portugal, 1640  Defenestration of Lisbon (1 December 1640) in response to demand for 6,000 troops  War of Restoration ( )

 Fiscal-military burden  “The monarchy remained rich, but it could no longer cope with the mounting cost of war” (p. 655).  silver imports  “Spain’s transatlantic trade collapsed in ” (p. 659)  rising taxes  diminishing population  The Army of Flanders “was insufficient to fight both France and the Dutch Republic” (p. 656).  casualty and wastage rate: +20,000 per year after 1635  resistance to military service  losses to Dutch in West Indies

 Military defeats  fall of Breda, 1637  “Victory was no longer expected; the aim now was to leave the war with honour” (p. 661).  co-ordinated attacks by France and Dutch Republic, 1638  irrecoverable attrition rates  affect on Empire:  reduction in financial subsidies from Spain  “A Spanish success in the Netherlands would enable Ferdinand III to withdraw his troops from Luxembourg, while a Spanish defeat would free France to reinforce its army in Germany” (p. 659).

 Military defeats  Olivares dismissed (1643)  death of Richelieu (1642) and Louis XIII (1643)  Cardinal Mazarin  no quick peace with Spain  territorial gains in the Empire  Battle of Rocroi (1643)  political significance for France

 “universal, anarchic and self-perpetuating violence” (quoted on p. 622 from Michael Howard, War in European History [1976]) ???  a purposeful myth  social, economic, administrative crisis  Swedish plunder of Olmütz, 1642 (pp )  aftermath of the Battle of Tuttlingen, 1643 (p. 643)  capture of French officers & wives  attacks of peasants on stragglers  casualties  Second Battle of Breitenfeld, 1642 (p. 638)  Battle of Jankau, 1645 (p. 695)

 a mobile war  increased proportion of cavalry  rapid response to conflicts “in poorly defended regions” (p. 623)  fewer sieges in the Empire (vs. Netherlands)

 a war “firmly controlled and directed” (p. 624)  “no marked decline in the skill of either senior or junior officers” (p. 624)  France: Henri deTurenne  Sweden: Lennart Torstensson  Empire: Franz von Mercy

 a war “firmly controlled and directed” (p. 624)  neutrality  Peace of Goslar (1642)  Wolfenbüttel exchanged for Hildesheim  Guelphs ceased hostilities.  France and Sweden lose Lower Saxony as a base for operation  Brandenburg  cease-fire (1641), truce (1643)  Saxony  Kötzenschenbroda Armistice (1645)

 a war “firmly controlled and directed” (p. 624)  financial way out  Heidelberg: Bavaria  France  bishoprics of Würzburg, Bamberg  Sweden  “neutrality in all but name” (p. 640)  Significance  moves towards neutrality “dispel the misconception of the war’s later stages as generalized, unlimited destruction” (p. 640)  “reduced the resources avaialable to the imperial war effort and discouraged the emperor’s remaining supporters” (p. 640).  electors co-operated with princes and cities instead of relying on relationship with the Emperor

 Regensburg Reichstag, fall 1641  united front against France and Sweden for German liberty  expansion of amnesty: Hessen-Kassel, Palatinate  an eighth electoral title

 25 December 1641: Ferdinand III’s gesture  peace negotiations:  France and Catholic states in Münster  Sweden and Protestant states in Osnabrück  local neutrality, safe passage for envoys  background: Guelph neutrality, Brandenburg- cease fire

 Westphalian Congress,  “a milestone in global relations” (p. 671)  “the ideals and methods of the peace-makers have profoundly influenced the theory and practice of international relations to the present” (p. 671)  “a ground-breaking event” (p. 672)  “the first truly secular international gathering” (p. 672)  challenge to hierarchy  move towards “the modern concept of an order based on sovereign states interacting as equals, regardless of their internal form of government, resources, or military potential” (p. 672)

 Westphalian Congress,  participation  198 official participants  (235 envoys and representatives)  178 participants from the Empire  accompanying staff: bodyguards, servants, cooks, tailors, etc.  total cost: ca. 3.2 M thalers  Negotiations  Münster, Osnabrück  Osnabrück: most Imperial matters settled here  Catholics and Protestants in both cities  bilateral talks

 representatives and objectives  Spain: Count Peñaranda  France:  Claude de Mesmes, comte d’Avaux  Abel Servien  comprehensive “peace of Christendom”  mutually exclusive positions  Spain: surrender of some towns in Artois

 representatives and objectives  Sweden: Johan Oxenstierna (p. 675)  Empire: Maximilian, Count of Trauttmannsdorff  Pomerania

 conflicting interests of Sweden and France  facade of German liberties  Sweden:  restoration of Palatinate  Pomerania: how much?  money  France:  favour of Bavaria  interests of Imperial church  division between Empire and Spain

 Westphalian Congress,  phases : Who may participate? : imperial constitution; compensation / territories for France and Sweden : comprehensive treaty, exclusion from peace?

 France and Sweden  renewal of alliance (1641)  “division of military labour” (p. 642)  France: west of the Black Forest  Sweden: Habsburg lands  Battle of Wolfenbüttel (1641)  Imperial victory  casualties: 3,000 (Empire); 2,000 (allies)  Battle of Kempen (1642)  in Electorate of Cologne  Hessen-Kassel in search of a victory for negotiations  Allied victory  reversal  Swedish invasion of Silesia and Moravia, 1642  fortress of Olmütz

 Sweden at war  Second Battle of Breitenfeld (1642)  Swedish victory  War with Denmark ( )  objectives  invasion of Holstein (December 1643)  fall of Christianpreis fort, Kiel (January 1644)  naval war  Imperial intervention, 1644  Kiel changes hands  fall of Bremen and Verden  Peace of Brömsebro, 1645

 Sweden at war  Battle of Jankau, 6 March 1645  “a disaster for the Emperor” (p. 695)  advance on Vienna, April 1645  brief co-operation with Transylvania  diffused by Imperial diplomacy  Imperial “resilience and ingenuity” (p. 698)  negative strategic consequences

 France at war  Battle of Tuttlingen (1643)  Imperial victory vs. France  Battle of Freiburg (1644)  Bavarians took Freiburg, 29 July  “the longest and one of the toughest battles of the war” (p. 683): 3 and 5 August  stalemate with heavy casualties  French gains on middle Rhine  Baden, bishoprics of Speyer and Worms, Philippsburg

 France at war  Battle of Herbsthausen / Mergenthehim, 5 May 1645  Imperial victory  Battle of Allerheim, 3 August 1645  French “strategic success” (p. 704)

 Participation of the Imperial estates in the Westphalian congress  observers?  Amalie Elisabeth, Hessen- Kassel, champion of aristocratic interests  proposal: estates to meet in confessional groups  support from Sweden and France  Emperor: invitation to estates to participate in traditional three colleges (29 August 1644)

 Imperial proposals 1. concessions to Sweden  Pomerania, Bremen, Verden 2. concessions to Brandenburg  Magdeburg, Halberstadt 3. concessions to France  Alsace 4. concession to Protestant estates  abandonment of restitution 5. concession to peace process  abandonment of Spain in a separate peace if absolutely necessary