Standardizing Arguments Premise 1: New Mexico offers many outdoor activities. Premise 2: New Mexico has rich history of Native Americans and of Spanish conquest Premise 3: New Mexico is inexpensive. _______________________________ Conclusion: New Mexico is an excellent vacation choice.

Standardizing Arguments Claim: New Mexico is an excellent vacation choice. ______________________________________ Support/Evidence 1: New Mexico offers many outdoor activities. Support/Evidence 2: New Mexico has rich history of Native Americans and Spanish conquest Support/Evidence 3: New Mexico is inexpensive.

Standardizing Arguments with the Toulmin Model Premises(Grounds)→→→Conclusion (Claim) REASONING (WARRANT) G → So C ; Since W Harry was born in the U.S. (Grounds) → So: Harry is a U.S. citizen (Claim) Since A person born in the U.S. is legally a U.S. citizen (Warrant)

Toulmin Model, cont. (G) Harry was born in the U.S. →So: (Q) presumably, (C) Harry is a U.S. citizen (R) unless he did not claim the U.S. citizenship Since (W) A person born in the U.S. is legally a U.S. citizen On account of (B) U.S. immigration law

Main Types of Reasoning INDUCTIVE: forming generalizations from specific instances DEDUCTIVE: reasoning from principles (known facts) CAUSAL reasoning PARALLEL CASE

Inductive Reasoning Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.

Guidelines for Inductive Reasoning Are there enough specific instances? Are the specific instances typical? Are the instances recent / relevant?

Deductive Reasoning Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion. The conclusion of deductive reasoning is certain rather than probable.

Syllogisms Major Premise: All humans are mortal Minor Premise: Socrates is a human Therefore: Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

Guidelines for Deductive Reasoning Make sure listeners will accept your general principle (major premise) Provide evidence to support your minor premise

Causal Reasoning Reasoning that seeks to establish causal relationship between two phenomena / events. A causes B

Guidelines for Causal Reasoning Avoid the fallacy of false cause Do not assume that events have only a single cause

Parallel cases Reasoning Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

Guidelines for Parallel Cases Reasoning Above all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike

Fallacy An error in reasoning.

Fallacies Hasty generalization Causal Fallacies (False cause) Bandwagon Fallacy Ad Hominem Either / Or Fallacy Invalid analogy Appeals to Misplaced Authority, Ignorance, Emotion, Tradition

Hasty Generalization A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

False Cause A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

Invalid Analogy An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

Red Herring A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

Red Herring “Why should we worry about the amount of violence on television when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

Ad Hominem A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Ad Hominem “The governor has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

Either-Or A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

Either-Or “The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

Bandwagon A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

Bandwagon “The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

Slippery Slope A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

Slippery Slope “Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”