Other chemical defense Bees: Stingers Isoamyl Acetate Ants: Formic acid

Actually, at least 11 hypotheses have been proposed. T. Caro has observed more than 200 occasions in response to cheetahs: stotting gazelles have never been seen to be caught. gazelles stott to proclaim to the cheetah that it has been detected and no longer has surprise in its favor. Cheetahs often do give up after stotting.

Adaptive anti predator behaviors

Alarm calls leopard bark eagle cough snake chutter Altruistic defense behaviors in vervet monkeys

The rewards of social living Flock vigilance, dilution effects and selfish herds Vigilance Flock vigilance: 2 eyes are better than one Dilution effects: you cant eat us all Selfish herds: surround yourself with food

Vigilance behavior can be conditional on risk House sparrows chirp (attracting) more when risk is low Is this a selfish behavior?

Dilution effects in may flies

Cicadas use dilution effect

Dilution effect: While living in a group may attract more predators the net individual risk is reduced Whirligig beetles

Selfish herds; surround yourself with food

Adelie penguins

Selfish herding behavior in bluegills