1 Review of Long-term Memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Sensory Memory Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal zRetrieval transfers info from LTM to STM zForgetting - inability to retrieve previously available information zWhy do people forget?

2 Forgetting theories zPoor encoding theories zDecay theories zInterference theories zRetrieval-cue theories

3 When do we forget? zForgetting can occur at any memory stage Retrieval from long-term memory Depending on interference,retrieval cues, moods, and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t. Long-term storage Some items are altered or lost. Short-term memory A few items are both noticed and encoded. Sensory memory The senses momentarily register amazing detail.

4 Forgetting as encoding failure zInfo never encoded into LTM Encoding X Long-term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Short-term memory

5 Which is the real penny? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)

6 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) Answer

7 Encoding failures zEven though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features

8 Other encoding failure demos zWhat letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone? zWhere is the number 0 on your calculator? zAccording to this theory, objects seen frequently, but info never encoded into LTM

9 Forgetting as retrieval failure zNot all forgetting is due to encoding failures zSometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval X Encoding Short-term memory Long-term memory

10 Tip of the tongue phenomenon za.k.a. TOT experience zCan’t retrieve info that you absolutely know is stored in your LTM zExample: ??? zEvidence of forgetting as an inability to retrieve info zWhy can’t we retrieve info?

11 Retrieval failure theories zDecay theories zInterference theories zRetrieval cue theories

12 Decay theories zMemories fade away or decay gradually if unused zTime plays critical role zAbility to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding Average percentage of information retained 20 mins 1 hr 8 hrs 24 hrs 2 days 6 days 31 days Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test 100%

13 Decay theories zBiology-based theory zWhen new memory formed, it creates a memory trace ya change in brain structure or chemistry zIf unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace zTheory not widely favored today yinfo CAN be remembered decades after original learning xeven if unused since original learning

14 Retrieval failure theories zDecay theories zInterference theories

15 Interference theories z“Memories interfering with memories” zForgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time zCaused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory zTwo types of interference

16 Two types of interference Types of interference Retroactive Interference Proactive Interference

17 Retroactive interference zWhen a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information zExample: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number

18 French 101 Mid-term exam Retroactive interference zExample: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language F- Study French papier livreplume école Study Spanish papel libropluma escuela retroactive interference

19 Proactive interference zOpposite of retroactive interference zWhen an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information zExample: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today

20 Proactive interference zExample: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language French 101 Mid-term exam F- Study French papier livreplume école Study Spanish papel libropluma escuela proactive interference

21 Retrieval failure theories zDecay theories zInterference theories zRetrieval cue theories

22 Retrieval cue theories zRetrieval cue - a clue, prompt or hint that can help memory retrieval zForgetting the result of using improper retrieval cues

23 Recall vs. Recognition tests zImportance of retrieval cues evident in recall vs. recognition tests zRecall tests - must retrieve info learned earlier yExamples: Fill-in-the-blank test; essay exams zRecognition tests - only need to identify the correct answer yExample: Multiple choice tests

24 What is the capital of Vermont? zRaise your hand if you know the answer

25 What is the capital of Vermont? zA. Brattleboro zB. Montpelier zC. Rutland zD. Cabot zRaise your hand if you know the answer zWhich was easier: recall or recognition? zFor your psychology exam, would you rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test?

26 Which retrieval cues work best? zEncoding specificity principle - cues used during initial learning more effective during later retrieval than novel cues

27 Which retrieval cues work best? zContext-dependent memory - improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment yBetter recall if tested in classroom where you initially learned info than if moved to a new classroom yIf learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs, people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell xcompared to different smell or no smell at all

28 Context dependent effects zTime of day is also important Learn at 3pmPerform better at 3pm Than 9pm

29 Context-dependent effects zWords heard underwater are best recalled underwater zWords heard on land are best recalled on land Water/ land Land/ water Water/ water Land/ land Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Percentage of words recalled

30 State-dependent effects zRecall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding zContext-dependent - external, environmental factors zState-dependent - internal, physiological factors

31 State-dependent effects yMood or emotions also a factor yBipolar depressives xInfo learned in manic state, recall more if testing done during manic state xInfo learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state

32 State dependent effects Drunk during learning Recall better if drunk Than if sober

33 Eyewitness testimony zRecall not an exact replica of original events zRecall a construction built and rebuilt from various sources zOften fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas zSchema - mental representation of an object, scene or event yExample: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows etc.

34 Eyewitness testimony zScripts - type of schema yMental organization of events in time yExample of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again; leave class etc.

35 Memory distortion zMemory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas zGiving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information

36 Loftus experiment zSubjects shown video of an accident between two cars zSome subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when the smashed into each other? zOthers aksed: How fast were the cars going when the hit each other? Accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going When they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

37 Loftus results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed collided bumped hit contacted 41 m.p.h. 39 m.p.h. 38 m.p.h. 34 m.p.h. 32 m.p.h.