Chapter12 part 1 Providedby:Fpourshahbaz

Speaking is so much part of daily life that we tend to take it for granted. learning speaking involves subtle and detailed knowledge about why, how and when to communicate and complex skills for producing and managing interaction. It takes place in cultural and social context. We speak in order to carry out various social activities andwe may not be consciously aware of it.

the way we say something loudly or softly, quickly or slowly, with a certain quality, with a certain melody or stress one syllable over another we deals with pronunciation. These elements make up the way we sound to our interlocutors and are crucial factors in conveying meaning. Our pronunciation shows our identityas individuals and how we indicate our membership of particular communities as social beings. It is also responsible for intelligibility-whether ornot we can get our message across.

Speakers and listeners are involved simultaneously in both producing and processing spoken interactions. they are under time constraints With no opportunities to go back and make changes. Speakers must take account of relationship with others. They should adjust their lg according the meaning they want to convey Respond to verbal or nonverbal signals from their listeners.

Genre or the concept of dicourse types identify the kinds of interactions in which we are involved for example speeches, jokes, doctor s consultations. Martin and Rothery define genre as staged goal- oriented,social process

1.a genre evolves within a culture and its social institutions (hence social) 2.social processes are purposeful(hence goal- oriented) 3.it usually takes a number of steps to achieve ones purpose(hence staged)

Transactional communication is primarily motivated by an exchange of goods and service center for information The motivation for interactional communication is primarily to creat and maintain socisl relation ships

Work by slade on causal conversation distinguished between chat a highly interactive multiple speaker sequence s of conversations and chunks sequences where primarily one speaker holds the floor.

Generic or shematic structure refers to the overallway in which a text unfolds. Genres contain both obligatory and optional elements. Abstract summerises the main point usually signals the start of story. Orientation the who what where whenthat orients listener to the situation place and time

Complication the main part of the narrative presents events in time sequence which lead up to a problem or crisis. Evaluation shows the speaker reaction to the story Resolution stage reveals how the storys main players resolve the crisis Coda the concluding stage of the story make a point about the text as a whole and reorients the speakers to the present

Different stages of a genre are characterized by typical lexical and grammatical patterns. Language learners who wish to speak fluently must have an understanding of the organization of the genres.

Text do not emerge intact as finished products Exchange structure analysis provides a way of showing how speakers can keep taking turns. The function of follow ups is to acknowledge information supplied in the response show our social and emotional reactions to the topic and indicate “convergence” or shared understanding.

Jointly constructing the interaction means that speakers must also judge when and how to take a turn. One possibility for obtaining a turn is to self- select. Another turn-taking opportunity comes when the current speaker nominates the next. This may be done directly or through the type of turn the speaker selects.

“Adjacency pairs” are major types of turn occurring together that enable speakers to allocate or give up turns. Question/answer is one of the most common one.

Closely related to turn-taking is the way speakers manage and negotiate topics. Speakers must ensure mutual understanding selecting appropriate levels of explicitness and using discourse strategies such as clarifying cheking summerizing and adopting to points made by other speakers. Repeatition is another discourse device used to manage topic negotiation

 Pronunciation is a term used to capture all aspects of how we employ speech sounds for communicating. pronunciation does not work in isolation in addition to employing our voice we also use eye movement mime and gesture.

There are certain patterns to how speakers use their voices to structure what they say thus providing important signposts for listeners as how to process what they hear. these patterns are achieved by chunking utterances into what is called “sense or tone groups” or “tone units” which indicate what from the speaker s point of view “belongs together”. Tone groups are characterized by “pitch movements”(also called ” tone”) and sometimes set off by pauses.

In any tone unit the syllable on which the major pitch movement takes place or begins is called “tonic syllable” - The syllable with the greatest prominence. signalling prominence is clearly an extermly important factor in getting our message across.

 For the precise timing of this turn-taking “pitch” and “loudness” are particularly important. Low pitch functions as a turn- yielding device whereas the higher pitch signals a bid for a turn.