The Archaeological Record Context and Variability Transformation Processes Modification

What is the Archaeological Record? ► Traces of the Human past. ► Affected by the age of the material, preservational environment, excavation technique. ► The archaeological record is patterned by human activities and the natural environment. ► Includes artifacts, ecofacts, features.

Soil vs. Sediment ► Soil develops during stable periods of a landscape.  Paleosols are soil profiles that formed in the past and are buried by more recent deposition.  These paleosols represent stable surfaces in the past and can have archaeological sites associated with them. ► Sediments are soils that are brought to an area through wind, water, etc.

Geoarchaeology

Geoarchaeologist examining column sample

Artifacts ► Anything used, made or modified by humans. ► Includes stone tools, pottery, bone objects, etc.

Stone Pipe-ca. 2,000 BP North America

Colonoware-Early African American Pottery

Clovis Points-ca. 11,000 BP North America

Ecofacts ► Material that provides information about the environments of the past. ► These are usually things that were used but not modified by humans in the past. ► Includes nutshells, animal bone, botanical remains, etc.

Burnt Wood

Animal bone

Human Remains

Roman Cemetery, Italy

Microscopic Analysis

Features ► Non-portable evidence of past human activity. ► These include things like hearths, structures, burials, etc.

Postholes

Stone Box Grave Feature

Hearth-Zhoukoudien, China ca. 1 million years BP

Late Medieval Hearth and floor

Stone House-Ireland

Sites ► The previously mentioned materials make up what archaeologists call sites. ► Sites are areas of past human activity and can vary from being very small and ephemeral to very large.

Pre-Clovis Site: Cactus Hill, VA

Middle Eastern Tell

Novgorod Viking site: Paved Streets

Tomb of the Terra Cotta Soldiers: Emperor Ch’in

Meadowcroft Rockshelter PA

Context ► Context is one of the most important concepts in archaeology. ► Context is a the relationship of archaeological materials at a site and is comprised of provenience, matrix and association.  Provenience is the exact location of an artifact.  Matrix is the material in which something is found.  Association is the spatial relationships between artifacts, ecofacts, features, structures and sites.

Variability ► Variability in the archaeological record is affected by preservation and scale. ► Some variability is reflected well in the archaeological record-like the variability of pyramids in Egypt. ► Other variability is not-like the variability in moccasin styles of prehistoric people.

Site Formation Processes

Taphonomy ► The study of natural processes from the time something dies and is deposited until it is recovered as part of an archaeological site. ► Takes into account all of the materials to understand why the materials/objects are they way they are. ► Note: Not everything from an archaeological site is necessarily part of that site’s occupation or use.

Taphonomy

Transformation Processes ► Cultural  Recycling  Reuse  Loss  Discard  Abandonment  Burial ► Natural  Weathering  Erosion  Deposition

Cultural Transforms (C-Transforms) ► Applying uniformitarianism: processes acting today acted the same in the past. ► Recycling  Recycling a discarded object into something new. ► Reuse  Reusing a discarded object. ► Also Loss, Discard, Abandonment, Burial

Natural Transforms (N-Transforms) ► Natural processes (weathering, erosion, soil deposition) affect cultural materials. ► These processes are usually very dynamic, but can also apply the concept of uniformitarianism.

Natural Transforms ► Environment can affect color, weight, size, etc. ► Objects can be more through wind, water and soil movements. ► Weathering affects objects and operates at different rates. ► Deposition, erosion and deflation are all natural processes.