CHAPTER 11 RACIAL/CULTURAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT IN PEOPLE OF COLOR: THERAPEUTIC IMPLICATIONS

Background These models acknowledge within-group differences and have implications for treatment. The high failure-to-return rate of many clients seems to be intimately connected to the mental health professional’s inability to assess the cultural identity of clients accurately. These models also acknowledge sociopolitical influences in shaping minority identity.

RACIAL IDENTITY ASSUMPTIONS 1. Racism is a basic and integral part of U.S. life and permeates all aspects of our culture and institutions. 2. Persons of color are socialized into U.S. society and, therefore, are exposed to the biases, stereotypes, and racist attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the society. 3. The level of racial identity development consciousness affects the process and outcome of interracial interactions.

RACIAL IDENTITY ASSUMPTIONS 4. How people of color perceive themselves as racial beings seems to be strongly correlated with how they perceive and respond to racial stimuli. Consequently, race-related reality represents major differences in how they view the world. 5. It seems to follow an identifiable sequence. There is an assumption that people of color who are born and raised in the United States may move through levels of consciousness regarding their own identity as racial beings. 6. The most desirable development is a multicultural identity that does not deny or negate one’s integrity.

The Racial/Cultural Identity Model (Sue & Sue, 1999) 1. Conformity 2. Dissonance 3. Resistance and Immersion 4. Introspection 5. Integrative Awareness NOTE the chapter covers a Black Identity Model, Asian American Identity Model and Hispanic/Latino Model as well. Only the R/CID (which extends to all ethnic minorities) is covered here.

Self/Other Perceptions 1. Attitude and Beliefs toward Self 2. Attitudes and Beliefs toward Members of the Same Minority 3. Attitudes and Beliefs toward Members of Different Minorities 4. Attitude and Beliefs toward Members of the Dominant Group NOTE: There is a table in the chapter that reviews how these perceptions change according to each stage of identity.

PHASE 1-CONFORMITY Is marked by desire to assimilate and acculturate–buys into the melting pot analogy. Accepts belief in White superiority and minority inferiority. Unconscious and conscious desire to escape one’s own racial heritage. Validation comes from a White perspective. Role models, lifestyles, and value systems all follow the dominant group.

CONFORMITY Physical and cultural characteristics identified with one’s own racial/cultural group are perceived negatively, as something to be avoided, denied, or changed. Physical characteristics (black skin color, “slant-shaped eyes” of Asians), traditional modes of dress and appearance, and behavioral characteristics associated with the minority group are a source of shame. There may be attempts to mimic what are perceived as White mannerisms, speech patterns, dress, and goals. Low internal self-esteem is characteristic of the person.

CONFORMITY These individuals may have internalized the majority of White stereotypes about their group. In the case of Hispanics, for example, the person may believe that members of his or her own group have high rates of unemployment because “they are lazy, uneducated, and unintelligent.” The denial mechanism most commonly used is “I’m not like them; I’ve made it on my own; I’m the exception.”

CONFORMITY People believe that White cultural, social, institutional standards are superior. Members of the dominant group are admired, respected, and emulated. White people are believed to possess superior intelligence. Some individuals of color may go to great lengths to appear White. In The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Malcolm X relates how he would straighten his hair and primarily date White women. Reports that Asian women have undergone surgery to reshape their eyes to conform to White female standards of beauty may (but not in all cases) typify this dynamic.

PHASE 2-DISSONANCE People experience breakdown of denial system. They encounter information discordant with previous beliefs in the conformity stage. Dominant-held views of minority strengths and weaknesses begin to be questioned. They begin to realize that attempts to assimilate or acculturate may not be fully allowed by larger society.

DISSONANCE There is now a growing sense of personal awareness that racism does exist, that not all aspects of the minority or majority culture are good or bad, and that one cannot escape one’s cultural heritage. Feelings of shame and pride are mixed in the individual, and a sense of conflict develops.

PHASE 3–RESISTANCE AND IMMERSION “Why should I feel ashamed of who and what I am?” Begins to understand social-psychological forces associated with prejudice and discrimination. Extreme anger at perceived cultural oppression. May be an active rejection of the dominant society and culture. Members of the dominant group are viewed with suspicion.

RESISTANCE AND IMMERSION Oriented toward self-discovery of one’s own history and culture. There is an active seeking out of information and artifacts that enhance that person’s sense of identity and worth. Cultural and racial characteristics that once elicited feelings of shame and disgust become symbols of pride and honor. “Why should I be ashamed of who and what I am?” Phrases such as “Black is beautiful” represent a symbolic relabeling of identity for many Blacks. Racial self-hatred becomes something actively rejected in favor of the other extreme, which is unbridled racial pride.

RESISTANCE AND IMMERSION There is a feeling of connectedness with other members of the racial and cultural group and a strengthening of new identity begins to occur. Members of one’s group are admired, respected, and often viewed now as the new reference group or ideal. Cultural values of the minority group are accepted without question. As indicated, the pendulum swings drastically from original identification with White ways to identification in an unquestioning manner with the minority-group’s ways. Persons in this stage are likely to restrict their interactions as much as possible to members of their own group.

RESISTANCE AND IMMERSION There is also considerable anger and hostility directed toward White society. There is a feeling of distrust and dislike for all members of the dominant group in an almost global anti-White demonstration and feeling. White people, for example, are not to be trusted for they are the oppressors or enemies. In extreme form, members may advocate complete destruction of the institutions and structures that have been characteristic of White society.

PHASE 4-INTROSPECTION Increased discomfort with rigidly help group views (i.e., all Whites are bad). Too much energy directed at White society and diverted from more positive exploration of identity questions. Conflict ensues between notions of responsibility and allegiance to one’s minority group and notions of personal autonomy. Attempts to understand one’s cultural heritage and to develop an integrated identity.

INTROSPECTION The conflict now becomes quite great in terms of responsibility and allegiance to one’s own minority group versus notions of personal independence and autonomy. The person begins to spend more and more time and energy trying to sort out these aspects of self-identity and begins to increasingly demand individual autonomy.

PHASE 5–INTEGRATIVE AWARENESS Develop inner sense of security as conflicts between new and old identities are resolved. Global anti-White feelings subside as person becomes more flexible, tolerant, and multicultural. White and minority cultures are not seen as necessarily conflict. Able to own and accept those aspects of U.S. culture seen as healthy and oppose those that are toxic (racism and oppression).

INTEGRATIVE AWARENESS Develops a positive self-image and experiences a strong sense of self-worth and confidence. Not only is there an integrated self-concept that involves racial pride in identity and culture, but the person develops a high sense of autonomy. Becomes bicultural or multicultural without a sense of having sold out one’s integrity. In other words, the person begins to perceive himself or herself as an autonomous individual who is unique (individual level of identity), a member of one’s own racial-cultural group (group level of identity), a member of a larger society, and a member of the human race (universal level of identity).

Implications for Clinical Practice Be aware that the R/CID model should be viewed as dynamic, not static. Do not fall victim to stereotyping in using these models. Know that minority development models are conceptual aids and that human development is much more complex. Know that identity development models begin at a point that involves interaction with an oppressive society.

Implications for Clinical Practice Be careful of the implied value judgment given in almost all development models. Be aware that racial/cultural identity development models seriously lack an adequate integration of gender, class, sexual orientation, and other sociodemographic group identities. Know that racial/cultural identity is not a simple, global concept. Begin to look more closely at the possible therapist and client stage combinations.