Beverages

Coffea arabica

Coffee History It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in Arabia and the north east of Ethiopia and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen in southern Arabia. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas.

Coffee Berries (Beans)

Coffee Production An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004, and it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value in 2005 (based on value in dollars, not in pounds produced).

Coffee Varieties Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from C. arabica) is generally more highly regarded than robusta coffee (from C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is C. arabica. However, C. canephora is less susceptible to disease than C. arabica and can be cultivated in lower altitudes and warmer climates where C. arabica will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica.

Regions of Coffee Cultivation r = robusta production, a = arabica, m = mixture

Coffee Seedlings - Brazil

Shade Grown Coffee – Costa Rica

Coffee Beans

Drying the Beans

Roasting the Beans

Various Roasts

Coffee Roasts Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium light, medium, medium dark, dark, or very dark. Darker roasts are generally smoother, because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have more caffeine and a stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times

Science and Coffee Consumption Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions. Findings have been contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding the potentially harmful effects of coffee consumption. Variations in findings, however, can be at least partially resolved by considering the method of preparation. Coffee prepared using paper filters removes oily components called diterpenes are present in coffee: kahweol and cafestol, both of which have been associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease via elevation of low density lipoproteins (LDL) levels in blood. Metal filters, on the other hand, do not remove the oily components of coffee.

Cacao – Theobroma cacao Tlalcacahoatl

Aztec uses of Cacao Woman making chocolate drink – from Codice Tudela – 16 th century

Florentine Codex – god visiting Cacao eater

Theobroma cacao

Cacao leaves and seeds – Theobroma cacao

Aztecs recognized at least four varieties of Cacao Cacahoaquiahuit – largest, bore the largest fruits, most seeds. Mecacahoatl – medium height, fruits second largest in size. Xochicacahoatl – smaller in height and with smaller fruits with red seeds. Tlalcacahoatl – smallest of them all and with the smallest fruits. It was thought to make the best drink. The other varieties were prized for seeds for currency

Chocolate The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste, and must be fermented to develop the flavor. After fermentation, the beans are dried, cleaned, and roasted, and the shell is removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs are then ground to cocoa mass, pure chocolate in rough form. Because this cocoa mass usually is liquefied then molded with or without other ingredients, it is called chocolate liquor. The liquor also may be processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter. Unsweetened baking chocolate (bitter chocolate) contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining cocoa solids, cocoa butter or other fat, and sugar.

Hot Chocolate

Benefits of Chocolate Cocoa solids contain alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have physiological effects on the body. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain. Some research has found that chocolate, eaten in moderation, can lower blood pressure. Dark Chocolate has recently been promoted for its health benefits, including a substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals (although this is unproven). The presence of theobromine renders it toxic to some animals, especially dogs and cats.

Psychoactive plants as a communal experience Many psychoactive plants have very subtle effects and appear to facilitate social interactions among people - plants included in this group include plants that yield recreational beverages such as beer, wine, yerba mate, coffee, chocolate, and tea

Piper methysticum – source of Kava

Kava Chemical Activity The active chemicals in kava are lactones The two most important ones are kavain and dihydrokavain – As Polynesians moved east, they tended to select plants rich in kavain and poor in dihydrokavain

Samoan women prepare Kava for the Kava ceremony

Different varieties of Kava There are 9 major groups of kava plant clones - each differs in chemical activity A Samoan clone called “fellowship and brotherhood” makes one feel very friendly Another called “the white pigeon” imparts a sense of heightened perception, as though one were flying over the rain forest like a pigeon

Tamarind – Tamarindus indica

Tamarind History It is a tropical tree, native to tropical Africa, the tree grows wild throughout the Sudan and was so long ago introduced into and adopted in India that it has often been reported as indigenous there also, and it was apparently from India that it reached the Persians and the Arabs who called it "tamar hindi" (Indian date, from the date-like appearance of the dried pulp), giving rise to both its common and generic names. Unfortunately, the specific name, "indica", also perpetuates the illusion of Indian origin. The fruit was well known to the ancient Egyptians and to the Greeks in the 4th Century B.C.

Tamarind Fruits

Tamarind Uses The fruit pulp is edible and popular. It is used as a spice in both Asian and Latin American cuisines, and is also an important ingredient in Worcestershire sauce, HP Sauce and the Jamaican-produced Pickapeppa Sauce. The hard green pulp of a young fruit is very tart and acidic and is most often used as a component of savory dishes. The ripened fruit is sweeter, yet still distinctively sour, and can be used in desserts and sweetened drinks, or as a snack.

Tamarind based sauces

Tamarinido Drinks

Herbs and Spices

A spice is a dried seed, fruit, leaf, root, bark, or vegetative substance used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavor, color, or as a preservative that kills harmful bacteria or prevents their growth. In the kitchen, spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purposes.

History of Spice Use The earliest evidence of the use of spice by humans was around 50,000 B.C. The spice trade developed throughout the Middle East in around 2000 BC with cinnamon and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for embalming and their need for exotic herbs helped stimulate world trade. In fact, the word spice comes from the same root as species, meaning kinds of goods. By 1000 BC China and India had a medical system based upon herbs. Early uses were connected with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.

More Spice History Spices were among the most luxurious products available in Europe in the Middle Ages, the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger and cloves. They were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them extremely expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice had the monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East. The trade made the region phenomenally rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.

Spice Trade Routes

Dutch East India Company Ship – Japanese Woodblock Print

Plants for Dyes and Decorations

Woad – Isatis tinctoria

Woad Dyes Woad produces a substance in its leaves called isatan B which, when exposed to the air, forms the blue compound indigo. This compound can easily be removed from the leaves by boiling them in water and an alkaline solution, a process used by home dyers today to make indigo today

Woad Dye and Woad Dyed Wool

Woad Body Decoration

Source of Henna – Lawsonia inermis

Henna Dye Henna, Lawsonia inermis, produces a red-orange dye molecule lawsone. This molecule has an affinity for bonding with protein, and thus has been used to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather, silk and wool. Henna body art is made by applying henna paste to the skin: the lawsone in the paste migrates into the outermost layer of the skin and makes a red- brown stain. Products sold as "black henna" or "neutral henna" are not made from henna, but may be derived from indigo (in the plant Indigofera tinctoria) or Cassia obovata

Henna Preparation Dried ground, sifted henna leaves are easily worked into a paste that can used to make intricate body art. Commercially available henna powder is made by drying the henna leaves and milling them to powder, then the powder is sifted. This powder is mixed with lemon juice, strong tea, or other mildly acidic liquids. Essential oils with high levels of monoterpene alcohols such as tea tree, eucalyptus, cajeput, or lavender will improve skin staining characteristics.

Mehndi – traditional Indian bridal henna art

Modern body art with Henna

Traditional tattoo on resident of Nuka Hiva- late 1700’s

Candlenut tree – Aleurites moluccana

Traditional Samoan Tattooing The pigments used in traditional Samoan tattooing comes from the nuts of the candlenut tree Aleurites moluccana (Euphorbiaceae) - called lama in Samoan The seeds are burned to produce soot which is collected on banana leaves and stored in coconut shells

Candlenut seeds ready to be burned to produce soot

Samoan Tattooing Technique Tattooing is done by grinding the soot with a mortar and pestle A serrated comb of pig bone is used to penetrate the skin, and a mallet pounds the comb and pigment into the skin A towel of bark cloth is used to wipe away the blood

Traditional Samoan tattoo process as done today

Completed modern version of traditional Samoan tattoo