Drama Drama : Means simply performance or action. This term comes from a Greek word means to act. It is performed by actors on a stage before an audience. It involves actions, conflicts, and themes. Classical classification of drama Comedy: a dramatic work that has a humorous and satirical tone and ends happily it has many types 1- pure comedy: s a type of comedy characterized by witty dialogue, satire and criticism of life. E.g. Shakespeare’s “ Midsummer Night’s Dream” 2-tragic comedy: a literary work that has some tragic elements but ends happily.e.g Shakespeare’s “ Merchant of Venice”

comedy of humor : it focuses on a fixed personality trait of a character that is portrayed in a humorous manner. E.g. Ben Jonson’s “ Every man in his humor” Comedy of manners : it is an ironic form of drama that satirizes the manners of a particular class. E.g. William Congreve’s “ the Way of the World”. Sentimental comedy: a dramatic genre aims at producing tears rather than laughter. It reflects a philosophical conception about humans as being innately good but capable of being misled by bad examples sometimes. E.g. Richard steele “ Tender Husband”.

Modern problem play: it deals with social issues through debates between the characters on the stage who represent conflicting points of view within a realistic social context. E.g. Henrik Ibsen “ A doll’s House” Types of tragedy: Revenge tragedy: its dominant motive is revenge. E.g. Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”. Historical tragedy: it is based on a historical narrative as Shakespeare’s “Richard II” Heroic tragedy: a play that is written in a heroic verse and focuses on national foundation or grand matters. E.g. Dryden’s Conquest of Granada

Drama is not simply literature; it is a composite art form, a mixture of literature and visual arts, speech and movement, story and spectacle. Didactic drama: it is a type of drama aims at teaching and instructing the audience. E.g. Marlowe’s “Dr. Faustus”. Monodrama: a drama that is composed by one actor playing only one character. E.g. Becket's “Krapp's Last Tape “

Morality plays: it tends to teach us morals and lessons and it is represented mainly by the conflict between virtues and vices. Closet drama: a type of drama that is not intended to be performed onstage, but to be read. E.g. John Milton’s Samson Agonistes Elements of drama: 1- plot: the series or sequence of events. It might take a simple linearity ( introduction-rising action-climax- falling action- End) Or it may move backward ( flashback) or forward ( foreshadowing). 2- character: Major characters- minor characters Flat characters- round characters

Themes: the dominant ideas of the play. Diction: the language used to show the characters contact or conflict. It would be in the form of a dialogue or monologue. Music: the sound effects on spoken language. The type of music could convey a message for the audiences.

how did drama merge and develop?? It began as a form of religious expression in classical Greek drama about the relationship between God and man. In this classical period, the theatre was an open air In the medieval/ middle ages, Drama witnessed a revival, in morality plays in particular as the play “ Every man”. The Elizabethan age was the golden age of drama as in the plays of Shakespeare and Marlowe. The queen herself was concerned of literature especially drama as a result there was permanent theatres.

Then, the puritans closed the theatres and that was a declining period of drama. In 1660, the monarchy in Britain was restored. Theatres were re- opened and actresses appeared for the first time. In the 19 th century, the romantic theatre emerged. It allowed humankind to transcend the limitations of the physical world. Henrik Ibsen was a leading figure who wrote plays that focused on ordinary people unlike Shakespeare and Marlowe who wrote about high-ranked people. E.g. “ A doll’s house” and “the wild Duck”

during the 20 th century, George Bernard Shaw, an Irish dramatist, wrote his plays in a realistic manner and he appealed to the minds of his audience rather than their sensations. He was concerned of the social issues and how to build up a civilization. This is called what is known by “Drama of ideas” which deals with contentious social issues through debates between the characters on stage, who typically represent conflicting points of view within a realistic social context. So, both Ibsen and Shaw used realism. * Still in Ireland, there were many plays which written by many Irish dramatists as Synge, Yeats, and Beckett. They were leading an anti-realistic trend in drama unlike Ibsen and Shaw.

As a revolt against Ibsen’s and Shaw’s realism, expressionism appeared giving a new way of thinking. It emerged in Germany at the very beginning of the 20 th century. Expressionistic writers show reality restored by an emotional and abnormal state of mind even by madness. E.g. Miller’s “Death of a salesman”. Moreover, there is a big space about the inner life of the character. It is about the heal of the world of subconscious. Every item on the stage reveals an idea like the music and the devices of lights.

Types of theatre: Absurd theatre: flourished in the middle of the 20 th century depicting man’s absurd state in an isolated, purposeless and meaningless universe and time. And because the human existence has no meaning or purpose, the communication between people would break down. e.g. Samuel Becket's “Waiting for Godot” Harold Pinter's “No man’s land”

Theatre of silence: A theatrical movement of the 1920s, characterized by the use of long pauses in the dialogue to allow the audience to imagine the unstated meanings or emotions. e.g. Jean-Jacques Bernard’s “The Springtime of Others” Harold Pinter’s “ Landscape and Silence”

Theatre of panic: it was invented in 1962 by the Spanish dramatist “Arrabal”. He was influenced by Beckett and Antonin Artaud. He sought to create a kind of drama which combines the elements of tragedy with religious ceremonials. It is intended to surprise and frighten as well as to arouse laughter. e.g. “ the Architect and the Emperor of Assyria” by Arrabal “ And They Handcuffed the Flowers” by Arrabal

Theatre of cruelty: It was developed by the playwright and the theorist “ Antonin Artaud”. In his view the theatre must disturb the spectator profoundly, pierce his heart and soul in such a way as to free unconscious repressions and oblige men to view themselves as they really are.