Lessons from Kalamazoo Dr. Michelle Miller-Adams Visiting Scholar, W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research Associate Professor, Political Science, Grand Valley State University March 9, 2011

Research Question and Rationale Do universal, place-based scholarship programs, such as the Kalamazoo Promise, reduce unequal opportunities and unequal outcomes for students in high-poverty public school districts? Why of interest? Proliferation of Promise-type programs nationally 22 created to date, only 7 of which are universal Interest in effective strategies for reducing achievement gaps by income, race Debate over universal v. targeted social programs

Universal v. Targeted Social Programs Some social programs are directed toward those with demonstrated financial need TANF, food stamps, Head Start, Pell grants Others are universal K-12 education, Medicare, Social Security Higher levels of political and public support for universal programs

Educational Inequality – Selected Indicators WhiteHispanicAfrican- American Economically disadvantaged % meeting standards in 4 th grade reading MEAP (2009, Michigan) - MI Dept. of Education High-school graduation rate (2009, Michigan) - CEPI, % of population with two- or four-year degrees (2008, Michigan) - American Community Survey n.a.

Hypothesis Conventional wisdom is that universal programs are designed first for economic development impact, with school effects secondary. Targeted scholarship programs seek to raise student achievement and reward performance. I argue that universal programs are more effective than targeted programs in achieving BOTH economic development and educational goals. Challenge: identifying pathways and dynamics through which school district and student performance are improved by universal scholarship.

The Kalamazoo Promise: A New Model Place-based -- Kalamazoo Public Schools Universal -- every graduate is eligible Minimum 4-year residency & enrollment Funded by anonymous private donors To continue in perpetuity Covers % of tuition and fees at any in-state, public post-secondary institution for KPS graduates Can be applied to any credit-bearing program Each student has 10 years to use scholarship

Kalamazoo Public Schools Demographics Racial composition 46% African-American 39% White 10% Hispanic 5% other Socioeconomic makeup 69% of KPS students are classified as economically disadvantaged 86% of African-American students 46% of White students Disparities within district (across 17 elementary schools) Low-income percentage ranges from 97% to 25% Non-white percentage ranges from 96% to 28%

A tool for reducing inequality? Distinction between inequality of opportunities and inequality of outcomes Kalamazoo Promise works to equalize both: Universal college access Structural & cultural school change Alignment of community resources Skocpol (1991) – “targeting within universalism”

Equalizing opportunity Reduction in financial barriers to college attendance Results (classes of ) 2,000 students have received scholarships (84% of those eligible) 1,100 are enrolled this semester $25 million spent Use of Kalamazoo Promise by race closely matches demographics of eligibility for the program. Use of Kalamazoo Promise by low-income students closely matches demographics of school district.

Usage by Race (data as of spring 2010) % eligible graduates who have used Promise % of eligible African-American graduates who have used Promise % of eligible Hispanic graduates who have used Promise (small-n) % of eligible Caucasian graduates who have used Promise

Usage by Socioeconomic Status* (data as of spring 2010) % graduates w/ Free & Reduced Meal status % of KP-eligible students w/ Free & Reduced Meal Status % of students w/ Free & Reduced Meal status who have used Promise * Free & Reduced meal status is underreported for all categories because only most recent five years of data is available and high-school FARM rates are lower than total district rates.

Unequal outcomes Low-income students more likely to attend 2-year rather than 4-year institutions. Positive outcomes vary across type of institution Students at 4-year institutions: 85% Students at 2-year institutions: 47% Low-income students are struggling once in college. KP users who qualified for Free & Reduced Meals while at KPS account for: 35% of students in good standing 70% of students on probation 67% of students whose scholarships have been suspended

Non-financial barriers K-12 achievement gap by income and race Lack of college preparedness Academic, social, emotional Absence of role models / support Cultural: sense that “college isn’t for me” Importance of defining college broadly Indirect mechanisms of support for college access/success

Equalizing outcomes Cultural: efforts to ensure that every student is “college-ready” Elementary school: full-day Kindergarten; early literacy emphasis Middle school: new block schedule, career awareness and college preparation High school: college readiness course, expanded AP offerings, credit recovery, weighted grades Structural: socioeconomic integration of schools Supported by enrollment increase & new school construction Will it extend to elementary schools? Neighborhoods?

Cultural Change Increased Advanced Placement enrollment ( ) # of AP courses taken:+ 174% # of students enrolled + 130% Economically disadvantaged to 259 students African-American to 211 students Hispanic-- 8 to 68 students Three years of rising NAEP scores, black-white gap reduced Black KPS third-graders outperformed state average in % passed reading, 89% passed math Significant increases in Iowa Test of Basic Skills (4/10) for first-graders (first group to have all-day Kindergarten)

Structural Change Reversal of long-term enrollment decline 20% enrollment growth since 2005 Enrollment increase the result of: Increased entry and decreased exit rates Stabilization of ethnic/racial distribution Low-income population has risen: 62% to 70% Increased resources for school district Per-pupil funding structure Support for bond issues (regional) Opening of new schools (first in 4 decades) Redistricting to achieve better socioeconomic balance

25-Year KPS Enrollment Trend

Initial Impact – Redistricting % of students qualifying for free or reduced-price lunch Redistricting Committee Projection Middle Schools - Hillside Linden Grove n.a.72 - Maple Street Milwood High Schools - Central Norrix

Questions about redistricting Does socioeconomic school integration literature have anything to say about middle and high school? Strategies for integrating elementary schools Wake County (Raleigh-Durham) schools

Comments, questions, or suggestions: Kalamazoo Promise Research Web Site The Promise of Kalamazoo blog