Europe after the Congress of Vienna  “Concert of Europe” – alliance to stop revolution  Russia, Austrian/Habsburg Empire, and Prussia: Remained absolutist monarchs  France, Spain, and many Italian states had adopted constitutional monarchies (with legislative branches).

Context of the Revolutions of 1848  Dramatic shifts in economies and populations  Enclosures – the fencing off of old common grazing lands for new cash-crops like turnips, maize, and potatoes, which forced peasants to become wage laborers.  Guilds, trade organizations that could limit the number of people working in their trade and demand a certain level of quality of product, were losing their power throughout Europe.  Horrible harvests in 1845 and 1846 increased the cost of food and caused an economic crisis, as people were no longer able to afford manufactured goods from cities.  Labor unrest

Austrian/Habsburg Empire  Home to a variety of languages, religious groups, and cultures  Financial crisis after the Napoleonic Wars and unable to project its power effectively  Led by a retarded emperor, Ferdinand von Habsburg

Prussia  As a result of the Congress of Vienna, Prussia was the dominant state in a German Confederation, which controlled censorship and a customs union, the Zollverein, which allowed for free trade within member states.

Italy  A variety of Italian states remained after the Congress of Vienna, but two of those – Lombardy and Venetia – were under the control of the Austrian Empire  Nations that had been influenced by the French Revolution and Napoleon Bonaparte still held to ideas of representative governments, civil liberties, and the elimination of privilege.

Revolutions of 1830sRevolutions of 1830s  Paris, France  As the French Monarchy under Louis XVIII and Charles X turned away from liberal reforms and became more conservative by issuing the July Ordinances, which restricted freedom of the press, dissolved parliament, and restricted access to the vote.  Crowds built barricades and fought with royal troops (700 died in just three days of fighting) through late July.  Charles X abdicated August 2, 1830.

Paris 1848  The throne was given to Louis Philippe from the liberal side of the Royal Family  Promised political freedom and lowered property requirements for voters  As the British passed reforms that provided for wider suffrage, French people especially those in Paris began to demand the same changes. Because protest was made illegal in France in 1835, French liberals and radicals organized in banquets (political protest rallies) in Louis Philippe then made these illegal.

Paris 1848  In reaction, Paris then broke into open rebellion, barricades were built and fighting again broke out.  Parisians achieved “national workshops,” a public works program for the unemployed; universal male suffrage; and legalization of various trade organizations, to help negotiate wages and prices.  Once elections were set for a Constituent Assembly, conservatives and royalists won control by playing on the fears of “Jacobinism.”

“June Days”“June Days”  On June 21, the government closed the national workshops and gave the unemployed a choice between dispersal to the provinces or enrolment in the army.  A virtual civil war broke out in Paris: liberal and conservative landowners and bourgeois merchants, lawyers, and bankers supported the republican government, while radicals came primarily from small-scale artisan trades of the city – building, metalwork, clothing, shoes and furniture, and from more recent industrial establishments such as the railway engineering workshops  The National Guard crushed the uprising, killing about 1,000 and exiling thousands more.

Other Revolutions II nspired by events in France, barricades were put up and demands for national self- determination, constitutions, and civil rights were announced throughout Europe.

Austrian/Habsb urg Empire  Within Austria’s empire Hungary established a free press and a national guard, abolished feudal obligations, and demanded taxes from nobles.  Inspired by this students in Austria also demanded representative government, clashed with royal troops. In response Prince Metternich resigned, censorship was abolished, students were armed, and universal male suffrage was granted.  Eventually, Hungarian nationalists led by Lajos Kosuth were defeated by Austria with the aid of Russian military forces.

Prussia  King Frederick William IV granted relaxed censorship and an assembly elected by universal male suffrage.  Frankfurt Parliament was created  “Basic Rights for the German People” were drawn up  Rising interest in “national unity” - The Prussian Army invaded the German speaking regions of Denmark – Schleswig and Holstein.  After Parisian radicals were put down in June of 1849, Prussian’s were motivated to take the offensive and drive radicals out of Germany (including Friedrich Engels – future coauthor of the Communist Manifesto).

Fighting in FrankfurtFighting in Frankfurt

Italy  Revolutions for nation unification broke out in Italy as well.  Revolts in Milan and Venice were aided by the King of the Piedmont against Austrian forces in hopes of creating a united Italy.  But by the end of 1848, revolutions in Italian cities were being put down by Austria in the north and the French in the south.

Results  The peasants of eastern Prussian and the Austrian Empire were emancipated from serfdom (forced labor on noble estates), clearing the way for capitalism.  Piedmont and Prussia kept new, limited constitutions  Nationalist movements were created and continued to press for national independence.  However, the demands from radicals for universal male suffrage and economic aid from government were not achieved as monarchs regained power.