Ottoman Empire

Bragging Rights Most long-lived of post-Mongol Muslim Empires Extended to Eastern Europe, Syria, Egypt, and across North Africa. Similar to new centralized monarchies of France & Spain Lasted from around 1300 to 1922

Origins Established c.1300 Grew from a tiny state in northwestern Anatolia due to 3 factors ◦Shrewdness of founder, Osman & his descendents ◦Control of strategic link between Europe & Asia through the Dardanelles strait ◦Awesome army ◦Skills of Turkish cavalrymen ◦New possibilities from gunpowder

Expansion At first, focused on Christian enemies in Greece & the Balkans ◦1389 – captured Serbian kingdom at Battle of Kosovo ◦1402 – Southeastern Europe & SE Anatolia ◦1453 – Siege on Constantinople (ended 1100 years of Byzantine rule…) Selim I “The Grim” – Egypt & Syria in 1516 & 1517 Suleiman the Magnificent presided over greatest assault on Christian Europe ◦1521 – Belgrade ◦1522 – expelled Knights of the Hospital of St John from Rhodes ◦1529 – siege on Vienna (saved by winter) ◦Imperial system worked to perfection Also sought control of Mediterranean ◦War with Venice (would last about 2 centuries in the long run) reducing Venetian military power ◦Combated Portuguese threats at Ade, but didn’t stifle Portuguese domination

Classical Society & Administration Societal division: Osmanli & Raya ◦Ruling class: loyal to sultan, practice Islam,& knowledgeable of Ottoman customs, behavior & language ◦Imperial/Palace ◦Military ◦Administrative/Treasury ◦Religious (Ulama) ◦Social mobility based on those characteristics ◦Rayas produced wealth for the sultan by farming or engaging in trade & paying taxes ◦At local level, divisions within subject class determined by religion ◦Millets – self-contained, autonomous community with own laws & customs responsible to the sultan for taxes & security ◦Made rules for marriage, divorce, health, education, justice ◦Purpose – keep different peoples separated to minimize conflict in a highly heterogeneous state ◦Guilds – reuglated economic activities, setting quality & pricing standards

Military State Best organized state in Europe and the Islamic World by 1520s Military: Cavalry archers + Janissaries ◦Christian prisoners of war serving as military slaves ◦Very elite, deadly force ◦Held significant political influence ◦Fought on foot with guns ◦Trained year-round Selection changed in early 15 th century – devshirme: regular levy of male children on Christian villages in the Balkans ◦Sent to sultan’s palace for education in Islam, military training, 7 liberal arts ◦Produced Janissary soldiers, senior military commanders, & heads of government departments Cavalrymen supported by land grants & administered rural areas in Anatolia & the Balkans ◦Maintained order, collected taxes, etc. ◦Stayed at home when not on campaign Navy manned by Greek, Turkish, Algerian, & Tunisian sailors Successful in wars against the Safavids ◦Balanced land & naval capabilities ◦Safavids slower to adopt firearms Military class spoke Osmanli, a blend of Turkish, Arabic, and Persian that was distinct from nomads & villagers’ languages ◦Also exempt from taxes ◦Saw sultan as providing justice for ‘flock of sheep’ & military as protectors

Running an Empire Raya paid taxes to support sultan & military Sultan’s government was pretty isolated from most subjects As Islam spread in the Balkans, Shari’a law conditioned urban institutions & social life Local customs prevailed in rural areas Non-Muslims looked to religious leaders for guidance in family matters

Crisis of Military State Size & cost of janissary corps increased as technology evolved (cannons, firearms, etc.)  role of Turkish cavalry diminished ◦Reduced number of landholding cavalrymen to pay janissaries ◦Inflation from New World silver bankrupted remaining landholders ◦Displaced, angry, armed cavalrymen became restive element in rural Anatolia Revolts devastated Anatolia ◦Former cavalrymen ◦Peasants overburdened by taxes ◦Impoverished students of religion Janissaries increased influence ◦Married ◦Engaged in commerce ◦Made membership in corps hereditary Greatly changed structure of Ottoman administration

Economic Change & Weakness Before: sultan led armies Now: mostly resided in palace & affairs of gov’t were overseen by administrators ◦Suleiman the Magnificent marked peak of Ottoman grandeur ◦Increasing lack of ability & power in sultans declined the empire ◦Grand Viziers, second to the sultan, stood in for sultan in official functions ◦But, separation of political loyalty (to sultan) and central authority (grand vizier) led to decline in government’s ability to impose its will Janissaries powerful in urban politics Tax farming rose in place of land grants for military service ◦Tax farmers paid specific taxes in advance in return for collecting a greater amount from actual taxpayers ◦Rural administration suffered & lost control to tax farmers Simultaneously, military power ebbed ◦Janissaries concerned elsewhere, now ill-trained ◦Second Siege on Vienna failed 1683 Lacked wealth & inclination to match European economic advances ◦Trade agreements first granted as favors by powerful sultans eventually led to domination of Ottoman seaborne trade ◦Didn’t have a sizable port to reach colonial settlement or direct control of Ottoman territory though ◦Tulip Period – European fashions in favor, named for high-priced Dutch tulip bulbs from

Reform Efforts Attempts at reform in 17 th century Responses to crises & military defeats ◦War with Austrian Habsburgs began in 1593 & threatened Ottoman control in SE Europe ◦Subsequent Treaty of Zsitvatorok (1606) restored rule of Hungary & Romania, but showed Ottoman weakness to Europeans ◦Rise of Iran to be a major threat ◦War with Venice ◦Provincial revolts Basically efforts to restore inherited system of government of the past ◦Restore tax farm system as basis of administration & army ◦Limits to taxes ◦Suppress revolts ◦Forced peasants back to land ◦Cultivation increased ◦Fixed coinage problems ◦Corrupt officials executed ◦Insubordination driven out ◦Industry & trade encouraged Sufficient to end immediate difficulties, but successful only temporarily ◦Monopoly of self-interested ruling class persisted ◦Europe also more powerful than it was in the past

Military Defeats Reforms made empire appear strong, so attempted to siege Vienna again.. Didn’t work. Coalition emerged among European countries to destroy Ottoman empire in 18 th century (Habsburgs, Venice, Russia) ◦Ottomans were supported by France, Sweden, & (neutral) Britain Fought wars with Europeans from Second Siege of Vienna to Treaty of Jassy ◦Lost Hungary, Banat of Temesvar region, Transylvania, and Bukovina Danube River) ◦Lost all possessions on northern coast of Black sea by 1812 ◦Compelled to allow Russians & Austrians to intervene legally on behalf of sultan’s Christian subjects, increasing European influence on internal Ottoman affairs

Imperial Decline: th Centuries Continuations of earlier conditions + weakness of central government = loss of control of most provinces to local ruling notables ◦Resembled European feudalism Notables gained power & maintained control ◦Sultan unable to suppress them ◦Local population preferred their rule to that of incompetent, corrupt Ottoman officials ◦Utilized local nationalism in Balkan Christian communities ◦Formed mercenary armies ◦Collected taxes & sent only nominal payments to treasury, increasing its problems Central gov’t able to maintain position by playing local rebels against each other & taking cash payments when needed ◦Didn’t suffer from provincial revolts as much as would be imagined Revolts did disrupt food supplies & caused large-scale famines to starve major cities on regular basis  urban populace became restless, anarchic mass responding to unemployment, famine, and plague