西方文明史 第四講： 希臘 劉 慧 教授 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用 CC 「姓名標示 －非商業性－相同方式分享」臺灣 3.0 版授權釋出】創用 CC 「姓名標示 －非商業性－相同方式分享」臺灣 3.0 版 1

Classical Greek Culture: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle The Greek Classical Age The Persian Wars 338 BCE Philip of Macedon unified Greece 2

3 A life of relative ease 70 working days a year; spare time devoted to gymnastics, attending symposium, and shopping at the agora Literacy widespread No bureaucracy or priestly class to discourage speculation Awareness of being different from their neighbours, especially the Persians 8-7 th c BCE 7-6 th c 5 th c Pottery: Geometric patterns –human figures sculptures of the idea male Myths– Epics – Lyric poems – Tragedy, Comedy – Pre-Socratics – Sophists, philosophers – Historians, orators

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5 Red-figure, 530- Kylix

6 c. 580 BCE c. 530 BCE c.500 BCE c.440 BCE naturalistic and idealised (as opposed to realistic)

7 8-7 th c BCE 7-6 th c 5 th c Myths – Epics – Lyric poems – Tragedies, Comedies – Pre-Socratics – Sophists, philosophers – Historians, orators A Reading from Homer 1885 Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, English (born in the Netherlands), Oil on canvas 36 1/8 x 72 1/4 inches (91.8 x cm)

8 Muse. Detail of the interior from an Attic white-ground cup, ca. 470–460 BC. From Eretria.

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10 The Pre-Socratics: 6 th c Asia Minor – Non-religious inquiries into the workings of the physical universe – All things could be reduced to some primary substance, e.g. Thales thought it was water – Looking for natural laws and rational explanations – The Pythagoreans: c Persian occupation led to distress at freedom crushed Turning away from the material world – The essence of things is not a material but an abstract principle, number. ‘Pythagorean theorem’ – To pursue a speculative life, one must be purified of evil fleshly desires

11 The Sophists c.450 – Victory in the Persian War led to exuberant optimism (esp. in Athens) about the power of the individual citizen + Greek travelers – Became interested in everyday life, in how the individual might best act in the here and now – Professional teachers of worldly wisdom and practical matters such as public speaking – Protagoras (fl ) Man is the measure of all things: What works best in this case? Agnostic in religious matters – no absolute truths or eternal standards of right (these rely on gods, i.e. something higher than men, in order to exist) Sense perception is the only source of knowledge, so there are only particular truths valid for the individual knower

12 Socrates ( BCE) – Reexamine all inherited assumptions – Establish clear, universal, definitions in ethics, to serve as foundation for the edifice of truth, and as principles of conduct Justice, love etc. – Through Socratic questioning Plato ( BCE) – Are there any internal and eternal criteria for good and bad behaviour? Or do they all depend on where and when you live? – To approach Truth = to remove prejudices and habits Discussion can help with the process – The Allegory of the Cave Inside – release from – return to the cave The physical world – the world of Ideas/Forms 理型

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14 Plato’s ideas – a system to serve as a framework of truth and reality – Ideas/Forms: eternal, immaterial, unchanging The physical world: perceived with senses: relativity & change The world of Ideas: there is a higher, spiritual realm, composed of eternal forms that only the mind can grasp (but have a real existence) – Forms are abstract objects of rational understanding, existing independently of the material world There are the Ideas/Forms of artifacts, of objects in the physical world, of geometric symbols, of relations between objects, of values – An example of a form is the quality, in virtue of which, many particular things are of the same kind. – Such a quality has a separate existence from the things. It exists even if there are no particulars that possess it. – Such a quality occurs in particular things imperfectly; we experience them with an aspiration for an ideal

15 The Idea/Form of the Good – Cabbage/ Good cabbage – Other Forms of value: courage, loyalty, moderation etc – The sun in the Cave Allegory – to illuminate, make distinction Teleology (a sense of direction) – To aspire to reach a higher plane – To know and to act on your knowledge – Some evidence/ applications To learn = to recall the Ideas the soul encountered in the world of Ideas The particulars – the universal; classification Abstract thinking; to transcend the ever-changing material world – Use ‘reason’ rather than ‘senses’ – Geometry can help – Moral philosophy, political theory – Faith

16 Aristotle ( BCE) – Plato: immutable truth; Aristotle: changes themselves and the changeable world can be the objects of study Causes (for change), (Platonic) form and material – The material cause (wood)/ the formal cause (table), the efficient cause (carpenter), the final cause (dinning table) – Living organisms only have the material cause and the formal cause – i.e. all things = the imprint of form upon matter/ matter shaped by the purposeful forces of form To change = to realize the potential which is contained in the form (potentiality and actuality) – Mineral – plants – animals – humans – god – God as the first unmoved mover (to move = to ‘attract’, ‘inspire’ with its perfect example)

17 Ethics: the golden mean – Happiness Reason is what differentiates humans from animals. We can exercise reason in practical affairs or, better still, in pursuing the life of the mind ‘Theoria’ (contemplation) is the highest form of mental activity – it is self- contained, both in the process and the aim Biology, politics etc – Systematic observation of tangible things + rational analysis of how they functioned Logic

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