Reading to learn in all content areas

When you think of an argument, you probably think of something like the following:

Argument (argumentation) is a method that helps students examine, in depth, any key concept or central issue. This is crucial for deeper understanding of ANY concept, hypothesis, or key idea students read in texts in ALL academic disciplines.

“If we aim to nurture literate, thinking citizens, our students need to recognize the one- sidedness of many arguments presented in today’s media. When students are presented with controversial – and sometimes sensational – statements, they need to automatically ask: what contradictory information or other viewpoints are missing from this debate?” (Daniels, 2011)

The 3 basic building blocks of any Argument are: ◦ Claim ◦ Evidence ◦ Warrant

A claim is the main point, the thesis, the hypothesis, the controlling idea. Students can find the claim by asking the question, "What is the author trying to prove?"

 A good claim is not obvious.  A good claim is engaging.  A good claim is not overly vague.  A good claim is logical; it emerges from a reasonable consideration of evidence.  A good claim is debatable. EXAMPLE: The most plausible explanation for the recent increase in gambling as an acceptable pastime is the perceived stamp of approval by cultural institutions, such as state and local governments and organized religion.

Evidence is defined as the reasons given in support of the claim. The support of a claim can come in the form of:  facts and statistics  expert opinions  examples  explanations  logical reasoning. You can find the support by asking, "What information does the author include to support his / her claim?"

 Evidence can include: ◦ Facts or statistics : objectively determined data about your topic. ◦ Expert opinion : the media is full of learned opinions which students should consider objectively when reading. ◦ Personal anecdotes : Personal experience can help bring an argument to life. EXAMPLE: The State of Minnesota spent $X million dollars promoting their state-run lottery through ads focusing on the contributions made to environmental funds (Cary). Churches have used raffles, bingo nights, and even card tournaments as fundraisers for years.

The warrant explains why the data proves the claim. A philosopher would say that the warrant helps to answer the question, “How does the evidence support the claim?” or “What else must be true for this proposition to hold?"

 A good warrant will be a reasonable interpretation of facts.  A good warrant will not make illogical interpretive leaps.  A good warrant will not assume more than the evidence supports.  A good warrant may consider and respond to possible counter-arguments. EXAMPLE : Citizens look at the amount of time and effort devoted to promoting gambling-related activities by their government and churches and assume that this is a legitimate and even risk-free activity with little social stigma attached. If the state and church rely on these funds to survive, gambling may even be regarded as a social service: the more money they lose, the more they’re helping others.

Leibniz, Mach, and Einstein all had one thing In common: they disagreed with Sir Isaac Newton on some level; they didn’t agree with his arguments about physics. And thus the science evolved and continues to do so. The same can be said of any academic discipline. A concept is an argument with scholars trying to prove it either true or false.

“The ability to [recognize and] articulate a well- constructed argument, one that acknowledges both sides and uses factual evidence to support its position, is very useful when you are sitting for a state graduation exam, writing essays for the ACT or SAT, [researching a new theory that counters a presently accepted one,] or, later in life, convincing your employer that a raise / promotion is in order.” (Daniels, 2011)

How can argumentation be used to help students when they read?

If students can identify claims, evidence and warrants when they read (or listen or watch), they can better understand what is being said and how they are being manipulated by what is being said (or not said, but that’s another PowerPoint…). This goes back to our goal as educators to help our students become informed citizens of our country, of our world.

If students can identify claim, warrant and evidence in the writings of others, they can include it in their own. Can you imagine a student producing an argument that makes sense AND is supported with valid evidence AND is relevant to those old enough to vote? Just take a moment on that one…

A simple way to evaluate articles for argumentation and persuasion is by using the S.M.E.L.L. method. S = Sender / receiver relationship: Who is the speaker? Who is the audience? What is the purpose of the speaker? M = Message: What is the claim ? E = Evidence: What evidence is presented? L = Logic ( warrant ): What is the quality of the reasoning? How does the evidence support the claim? L =Language: What is the style of the writer?

 Distribute text to be evaluated  Review the basic components of an argument and S.M.E.L.L. technique with students  Ask students to read and take notes on their own paper or a graphic organizer labeled with S.M.E.L.L.  Allow students to discuss S.M.E.L.L. elements in small groups  Open up to larger group for whole class discussion of S.M.E.L.L.

 Read the article titled “Warmed-up Numbers”  On a sheet of paper vertically label it with S.M.E.L.L. (leave room for notes)  Record your observations for each prompt (letter of the acronym)  Discuss findings with an adjacent colleague  Consider counterclaims (counterarguments) Are there ideas / experiments that oppose the central claim of the article? So?

Ok, take a moment and consider a piece of writing or text you’ll be using with your students in the first month of school. 1. What is the central argument of the text? 2. How does the author defend his/her argument? 3. How does the evidence support the argument? 4. What can you do to help your students see these different elements of the central argument? Jot down the answers to these questions and exchange ideas with a neighboring colleague.

When students examine both sides of an argument, whether it’s a formal argument on global warming, the theory of gravity, or philosophical meaning of Hamlet, they have a deeper understanding of the texts they read.

 Difficulty understanding all of the components of an argument  Faulty logic of students  Shallow knowledge base of students (counterclaims) It is up to teachers to reteach over and over until students fill in these gaps. Argument is best learned via repetition; trial and error.

 Award completion points for completed notes or graphic organizers.  Monitor small and whole group discussions; award participation points to those that contribute. Allow students to use notes while debating the argument of a text.  Ask students to write a piece based on the counterclaims or conflicting arguments of the text. Assess for argument construction AND key concepts.  Use as a formative assessment.