Basic Sentence Structure: Learn the hardest punctuation rules by learning to identify phrases and clauses and Learn the four basic sentence structures This Keynote presentation should be worked through with (1) your sentence structure packet, (2) your online exercises, and (3) the Interactive Grammar Summary (“IGS”), For full instructions, visit writeo.us’s AP syntax page. 1

What is a noun? A naming word. It names a person, place, thing, or abstract concept. What are the nouns in the following sentence? Patriots fought the British for liberty. Circle all of the nouns on page 29, sentences What is a pronoun? A word that substitutes for a noun. What are the pronouns in the following sentence? They fought them for it. Circle all of the pronouns on page 29, sentences 5 & 6. 2

What is a subject? How is it different from a noun? A subject is the noun, pronoun, or phrase that does the action in a sentence. Which of the nouns in the following sentence is the subject? Patriots fought the British for liberty. Double-circle the subjects on page 29, sentences

What is a verb? A verb describes the action in a sentence and forms the main part of the sentence’s predicate. What are the verbs in the following sentences? He leaves tomorrow on the first train. The quick, brown fox jumped over the lazy dogs. Put rectangles around the verbs on page 29, sentences

All of the hard punctuation rules are easy if you know how to spot phrases and clauses. Words in sentences clump together in phrases and clauses. What is a phrase? A phrase is a group of words that acts like a single part of speech. Can you find the phrase in this sentence: The lion is the king of the forest. “of the forest” acts like an adjective modifying what? The lion is the king of the forest. The most common phrase is the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase often tells when or where someone or something acts. 5

Example: She hit the ball over the fence in the bottom of the tenth inning. Which prepositional phrase tells where someone did something? Which tells when? Some common prepositions: at, before, for, from, in, of, to, under, with. Draw a diamond around the preposition in each prepositional phrase on page 29 in sentences Underline the prepositional phrases on page 29 in sentences 1 through 4. 6

Where is/are the prepositional phrase/phrases in the following sentence? At the beginning of the jump a person feels a rush of emotions. Where would you put a comma? At the beginning of the jump, a person feels a rush of emotions. Rule #1: Use a comma after two prepositional phrases that start a sentence. 7

What is the rule for the following examples, though? At the time, I couldn’t decide on whom to marry. About him I have nothing to say. Rule #2: Use a comma after one prepositional phrase that starts a sentence only if you hear a natural pause after it. Underline the prepositional phrases on page 29, sentences Circle the prepositions in each prepositional phrase in sentences Punctuate sentences

What is a phrase? A phrase is a group of words that acts like a single part of speech. What is a clause? A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a verb. What is the subject and verb in this clause? We ate cheese and crackers for dinner. What is the subject and verb in each of these two clauses? We ate shrimp until the waiter came with the pizza. What are the two clauses? We ate shrimp / until the waiter came with the pizza. 9

On page 29 in sentences #11 - #16, circle the subject and put a rectangle around the verb in each clause. Then draw a slash mark between the clauses. Some clauses can stand alone as sentences, and some cannot. What clause in this sentence could stand alone as its own sentence? We ate shrimp until the waiter came with the pizza. We ate shrimp / until the waiter came with the pizza. Right: We ate shrimp A clause that can stand alone as a sentence is called an independent clause. Example: We ate shrimp. A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence is called a subordinate clause. Example: Until he came. 10

An independent clause that stands alone is a simple sentence. A simple sentence. One independent clause. Example: She wrote several books. 11

A subordinate clause starts with a subordinator. Without a subordinator, the subordinate clause would be an independent clause. For instance: As she spoke, I could see tears streaming down his face. What is the subordinate clause? What is the subordinator? As she spoke, I could see tears streaming down his face. Most subordinators are subordinating conjunctions: Subordinatin g conjunctions afteras becaus e befor e untilwhile Other subordinator s thatwhichwho That, which, and who are pronouns, so they are subjects 12

On page 29, sentences #11 through #16, draw a second line under every subordinate clause. Then draw a heart around the subordinator of each subordinate clause. 13

Where should a comma be in the following sentence? When I got there the basement was already flooded. Rule #3: left-branch subordinate clauses always end with a comma. For instance: When I got there, the basement was already flooded. Where should a comma be if you put the subordinate clause after the independent clause? For instance: The basement was already flooded when I got there. Rule #4: right-branch subordinate clauses don’t start with commas. On page 29 in sentences #11 through #16, place commas where necessary. 14

A sentence with a subordinate clause and an independent clause is called a complex sentence. A simple sentence. One independent clause. Example: She wrote several books. A complex sentence. One independent clause and one subordinate clause. Example: She wrote several books as she recovered. 15

Subordinate clauses can start with that or which. If you wouldn’t say the sentence without the clause, use that. If the information inside the clause is just extra, use which. For example: The ring that my grandmother gave me still fits. The ring, which my grandmother gave me, still fits. The ring that my grandmother gave me still fits. The ring, which my grandmother gave me, still fits. Rule #5: Use commas to set off clauses that start with which (a nonessential subordinate clause). Rule #6: Don’t use commas to set off clauses that start with that (an essential subordinate clause). On page 29, sentences #17 - #24, underline the subordinate clause in each sentence. Then, circle the subject and verb in each subordinate clause. 16

On page 30, sentences #17 - #24, put commas where they should go based on the previous rules #5 and #6. Subordinate clauses aren’t the only thing that take commas when they’re nonessential and don’t take them when they’re essential. Appositives do, too. An appositive is a word or phrase that follows a noun or pronoun for the purpose of explaining it. Appositives can be essential appositives or nonessential appositives. Examples: Mary, a tall girl, won second place at the history fair. [“A tall girl” is a nonessential appositive.] My cousin Frank sells real estate in Fresno. [“Frank” is an essential appositive.] 17

Mary, a tall girl, won second place at the history fair. “A tall girl” is a nonessential appositive because the information isn’t essential to the sentence’s existence. “A tall girl” is added information. My cousin Frank sells real estate in Fresno. “Frank” is an essential appositive because “Frank” identifies the cousin in question. Rule #7: Nonessential appositives are set off by commas. Rule #8: Essential appositives are not set off by commas. On page 30, sentences 25 through 28, underline the appositives and put commas where necessary. 18

There are two kinds of phrases we need to know about besides the prepositioal phrase. One is the participial phrase. A participial phrase starts with a participle. There are two kinds of participles. Past participles end in –ed (buried, for example), and present participles end in –ing (lurking, for example). There’s a participial phrase in this cumulative sentence: Buried in the sand for centuries, the wooden ship felt like driftwood beneath the vacationers’ feet. Lurking just beneath the hot sand, the wooden ship felt like driftwood beneath the vacationers’ feet. 19

The other kind of phrase is the absolute phrase. It’s almost a sentence. In other words, it’s a participial phrase with a noun in front of it: Its skeleton buried in the sand for centuries, the wooden ship felt like driftwood beneath the vacationers’ feet. Rule #9: When a sentence starts with a participial phrase, put a comma after it. Examples: Using her head as a kind of battering ram, my sister broke into my room. Urged on by their fans, the Nats extended their current winning streak to three games. Rule #10: Set off an absolute phrase with commas. 20

Rule #10: Set off an absolute phrase with commas. Example: The job nearly completed, the men put down their shovels and shared a pitcher of lemonade. After they won, the players ran off in five directions, the crowd nearly suffocating them in their frenzy. (Exercises that enforce rules 9 and 10 concerning participial and absolute phrases are in the cumulative sentences packet on binder pages 7 through 12.) 21

A clause can have a compound subject. Example: Raoul and Paul play ball. How many clauses does that sentence have? Raoul and Paul play ball. A clause can have a compound verb, too. Raoul and Paul play ball and eat Skittles. How many clauses does the above sentence have? Raoul plays ball, and Paul eats Skittles. How many clauses does the above sentence have? On page 30, sentences #29 - #33, circle the subjects and put rectangles around the verbs. Underline the compound subjects once and underline the compound verbs twice. 22

Definition of compound subject: two or more subjects in a single clause. Example of compound subject: Raoul and Paul play ball. Definition of compound verb: two or more verbs in a single clause. Example of compound verb: Raoul and Paul play ball and eat Skittles. 23

A sentence with two or more independent clauses is called a compound sentence. A simple sentence. One independent clause. Example: Maria wrote several books. A complex sentence. One independent clause and one subordinate clause. Example: Maria wrote several books as she recovered. A compound sentence. Two or more independent clauses. Raoul plays ball, and Paul eats Skittles. 24

How do you make compound sentences? By joining independent clauses. Rule #11: You may join two independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Raoul plays ball, and Paul eats Skittles. A coordinating conjunction joins words, phrases, or independent clauses. There are seven of them, and their first letters spell FANBOYS. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. FANBOYS. Rule #12: You may join two independent clauses with a semicolon. Raoul plays ball; Paul eats Skittles. 25

Rule #13: You may join two independent clauses with a colon if the second clause explains or summarizes the first. Here’s an example: Your paper needs work: it lacks flow. But if you switch the clauses, the second doesn’t explain or summarize the first clause anymore. Example: Your paper lacks flow; it needs work. 26

Rule #14: You may join two independent clauses with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma. Raoul plays ball; nevertheless, Paul eats Skittles. A conjunctive adverb is a connecting word that shows how the ideas in two independent clauses relate to each other. Another example: He loves Chinese food; besides, he likes to eat out with us wherever we go. Here are some conjunctive adverbs: accordinglycertainlyconsequently furthermorehencehowever incidentallyindeedlikewise moreoverneverthelessnonetheless similarlythusundoubtedly 27

Here are some more common conjunctive adverbs: to write down in your packet: alsobesideshowever insteadotherwisetherefore 28 On page 30, sentences #34 - #41, underline each clause. In each clause, circle the subject and draw a rectangle around the verb. Then correct the punctuation in the clause using our four new rules.

A sentence with two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses is called a compound-complex sentence. A simple sentence. One independent clause. Example: Maria wrote several books. A complex sentence. One independent clause and one subordinate clause. Example: Maria wrote several books as she recovered. A compound sentence. Two or more independent clauses. Raoul plays ball, and Paul eats Skittles. A compound-complex sentence. A sentence with two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. New games are sold every Christmas; nevertheless, many games that have been around for generations retain their popularity. 29

Compound-complex sentences don’t have their own punctuation rules. When you write a compound-complex sentence, just use the punctuation rules for compound sentences and complex sentences. 30

31 Run-ons are incorrectly joined sentences. Here’s an example: The game was exciting, we stayed to the end. What’s wrong with it? (A comma splice is a run-on that joins two sentences with only a comma.) How would you fix it? Use rule #11, #12, #13, or #14, or make them into two sentences!

What is a fragment? A fragment is punctuated to look like a sentence, but it isn’t a sentence. A fragment often is missing a subject or a verb, or it is disconnected from an independent clause.subjectr it clause. Examples Examples of fragments: On the radio right now. Paul, a debonair dresser who goes practically nowhere without his top hat and cane. Weathered the storm and lived to tell about it. 32

Rule #15: Avoid fragments and run-ons, such as comma splices. On page 30, sentences #39 - #45, put an “F” beside each sentence fragment and an “R-O” beside each run-on sentence. Then correct each fragment and run-on to make them into sentences. In each new sentence, underline each clause. In each clause, circle the subject and put a rectangle around each verb. 33