Borehole Stability Overview of Methods of Hole Improvement Maurice B. Dusseault

Major Drilling Problems Blowout of fluids under high pressure Lost circulation (often leading to blowouts) Massive shale instability Chemical reasons – ductile unfractured shales, incompatibility with oil-base mud Mechanical reasons – highly fractured shale or coal, fissile shale and horizontal wells Stress reasons – high compressive stress fields Squeeze while drilling salt Induced slip of high angle joints

Coiled tubing drilling Natural gas Canada Coiled tubing drilling Oil Turkmenistan

Well Blowout in California September 1968, Union Oil Santa Barbara Channel, CA There has been no drilling offshore California since this blowout

Blowout Conditions When mud pressure is no longer enough to balance a high-pressure fluid (oil, gas, water) that flows at a high rate… po > pw However, we now use underbalanced drilling where po > pw all the time! But… Only if there is no large amount of oil or gas in a high permeability zone Only if the shale is strong enough to stand without wall support Generally limited to relatively shallow drilling

Underbalanced Drilling: pw < po po> pw pw Source: Air Drilling Associates Inc.

LC - Lost Circulation Occurs in two ways: In zones with large diameter pores or channels (vuggy carbonates, rubble zones, fractured zones, fault zones…) In conditions where pw > σhmin and a hydraulic fracture propagates beyond the borehole region Pressure controlled drilling helps avoid LC/BO “Strengthening” the borehole wall… Increasing the stress around the borehole wall Plugging initiating fractures with solids…

LC in Depleted Zones Courtesy: At Balance Americas LLC Depleted zone

Using Pressure Control Drilling Courtesy: At Balance Americas LLC Depleted zone

Chemical Shale Instability Chemically sensitive ductile shales… Smectite-rich clays that swell with Δ(chemistry) Younger and shallower shales (<5000 m depth) Higher  (lower density) shales, ductile, few natural fractures Chemical compatibility with drilling mud is difficult to achieve over a long open hole Heating at the upper casing shoe leads to stress increase and sloughing of shale Oil-base muds very effective in ductile shale

Signs of Geochemical Instability Usually only with WBM Increase in cavings volume Cuttings are mushy and rounded Bit balling, BHA balling, increased ECD Gradual continued increase in torque Overpull off slips during trips Pump pressure gradually increasing Gradual changes in mud system properties, rheology, solids content and type…

Failed Zone from Shale Swelling Borehole wall failure simulation because of chemically induced shale swelling σHMAX Maximum σθ locations http://www.mate.tue.nl/mate/research/posters/award97/mathieu.pdf Courtesy: MM Molenaar, JM Huyghe, JD Janssen, FPT Baaijens\ Failed regions

Chemical Instability Dispersion and softening of the swelling shale leads to hole instability, mud rings, bit balling, etc. Some examples

Mechanical Shale Instability Stiff fractured Quartz-Illite shales Natural fractures reduce the effects of pressure support of the borehole by mud cake Oil-based muds are not effective Fissile shales in long-reach horizontal wells Large-scale sloughing and washouts because the fissile shale on the top of the hole sloughs Carbonaceous shales (thin coal partings) Fluids penetrate easily along partings, especially oil-based muds

Fractured Quartz-Illite shale Shale Fragments From 12400’ Note the abundance of linear breaks (yellow) which appear to be oblique to shale bedding surfaces, indicating the probability of pre-existing fractures. Fractured Quartz-Illite shale Courtesy BP International

Signs of Mechanical Instability All types of mud Large cuttings and cavings, odd shapes, increases of shale on shaker (in surges?), Splintery cavings, blocky chunks of shale… Hole fill on connections and trips Stuck pipe because of bridging, pack-offs Lost circulation in shale zones (MW too high), including ballooning effects Changes in the pump pressure, often surges Sudden erratic changes in torque

Shale Morphology is Diagnostic Blocky naturally fractured shale Fissility sloughing Courtesy Chris Ward and Stephen Willson High stress splintering Sub-salt rubble zone

High Differential Stress Instability Usually found in compressive stress regimes near mountains The difference σ1 – σ3 is very large, so… The shear stresses in the borehole wall are large And the shale fractures, shears, develops microcracks, and wall support is lost Characterized by very large borehole breakouts, continued shale sloughing Often, raising MW has limited effects

Margins and Forelands Neuquen Basin Active subduction margins on the west coast of Chile Thrust (compressional) dominated basins near the Andes front Passive margins exist on the east side of Argentina Foreland Basins: Neuquen Basin is the classic example Distal Foreland Basins are further east – San Jorge… San Jorge Basin Magallenes Basin

Colombia Magdalena Trend Llanos deep reservoirs Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos Magdalena Trend Llanos deep reservoirs Future prospects in the basins to the SE of the Andes ORINOCO

Stresses and Drilling sv sHMAX shmin sv sv sHMAX sHMAX shmin shmin sHMAX ~ sv >> shmin To increase hole stability, the best orientation is that which minimizes the principal stress difference normal to the axis 60-90° cone sHMAX shmin Favored hole orientation sv sv Drill within a 60°cone (±30°) from the most favored direction sHMAX sHMAX shmin shmin sHMAX >> sv > shmin sv >> sHMAX > shmin

Salt Squeeze Salt is a viscoplastic material It flows (creeps) under differential stress The higher the stress, the faster the creep The higher the temperature, the faster the creep Also, there are other issues… It is highly soluble (washouts possible) Low density means different stress gradients The presence of dolomite or limestone beds can impact drilling Rubble zones under thick salt bodies (GoM)

Salt in the United States Michigan Basin Williston Basin Appalachian Basin Paradox Basin Permian Basin Gulf Coast Basin Source: National Petroleum Technology Office

Zechstein Salt, North Sea Basin Oslo Major fields: Ekofisk, Valhall, Dan… Diapir structures Hamburg Berlin London ZECHSTEIN BASIN 300 km

Drilling Problems in Salt Rock pipe Large dissolved zone washout Salt pinch Ledges and blocks Salt BHA Rubble zone Limestone or dolomite bit Squeeze Washouts Ledges & Blocks

Slip of High-Angle Joints High angle joints can slip and decrease the borehole diameter, giving trip problems High mud weight high in an open-hole section Pore pressure permeates into the joint Slip happens, pinching the hole diameter Raising MW makes it worse Blocking flow into the joint helps prevent it Back reaming with a top-drive system makes it possible to drill out of the hole

Slip of a High-Angle Fault Plane borehole sv = s1 casing bending and pinching in completed holes sh = s3 high pressure transmission pipe stuck on trips slip of joint surface slip of joint (after Maury, 1994)

Slip Affected by Hole Orientation! OFFSET ALONG PRE-EXISTING DISCONTINUITIES FILTRATE TYPICAL MUD OVER-PRESSURE Courtesy Geomec a.s.

Some Diagnostic Hole Geometries General sloughing and washout a. Swelling, squeeze b. sHMAX Breakouts drill pipe Keyseating e. shmin Induced by high stress differences Fissility sloughing c. c. f. Only breakouts are symmetric in one direction with an enlarged major axis

Solutions to Borehole Instability Problems

What is Your Problem? Correct identification of the problem is essential to find a good cure… High differential stresses? Swelling shale? Chemically sensitive. Fractured shale? Slip of joints, or fracture planes? Squeeze of salt? Fissile or carbonaceous shale sloughing? Heating of the borehole causing sloughing? You must establish the reason first…

What Keeps a Borehole Stable? Favorable natural conditions Strong rock (carbonates, anhydrite…) Low stresses and small stress differences Good mud properties Good support of the wall (good filter cake) Proper hole cleaning, viscosity, gel strength Proper MW programs, lower T, other effects Good drilling practices & trajectory Tripping and connections practices Early identification of trouble (cavings volumes…) Proper choice of well trajectory

Example: Drilling near Salt Instability of surrounding shales Lost circulation in residual rocks Squeeze in salt Sheared zone on the flanks of the dome Low σhmin near flanks of salt dome What is the most important problem? residual rocks salt dome gas oil mother salt

Solutions to Salt Drilling Problems Maintain a salt-saturated drilling mud with a small amount of free salt in the fluid To slow down squeeze of boreholes in salt, there are only two possibilities: Reduce the temperature to reduce the salt creep rate around the borehole Increase MW so that there is less differential stress: that is - minimize (σ – pw) Increase your drilling rate! This means that salt has less time to squeeze

Mud Weight vs. Hole Closure Rate -5 5 10 15 20 25 14 16 17 18 19 Mud Weight - #/gal Closure rate, %/day Conditions: 11,000’ depth, North Sea Case T @ 11000 ~ 95°C Stress in salt at 11000’ = 19.7#/gal MW Salt type: Fast-creeping salt (high interstitial H2O content) Hole size: 8.5“ overburden

Mud Cooling Effect on Hole Closure Conditions: 11,000’ depth, MW is 16 #/gal Base case (x = 0) is at 95°C temp. Stress in salt at 11000’ = 19.7#/gal MW Salt type: Fast-creeping salt (high interstitial H2O content) Hole size: 8.5“ 14 12 10 8 Closure Rate (%/day) 6 4 North Sea, Zechstein Salts 2 cooling heating -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 5 10 Cooling Amount (deg C)

Shale Problems in Drilling Continued sloughing and hole enlargement Hole cleaning difficulties, hole fill on trips Mud rings and blockages Swabbing pressures on trips to change the bit Difficulty in controlling drilling mud properties Sudden collapse (usually when po > pmud) Instability in shale also increases the risk of blowouts and lost circulation Increased torque, overpull on trips…

Circumferential Fissuring in Shale Anisotropic stresses usually exist in the borehole plane Single extensional axial fractures develop parallel to sHMAX, region of low sq sHMAX shmin Any hole in a naturally anisotropic stress field has large tangential stresses, low radial stresses. low sq mud-filled borehole Extensional microfissuring from high compression high sq Shearing and dilation, high tangential stress, normal to sHMAX All types of brittle damage make pressure penetration easier! Understanding stresses and shale damage is vital!

Mudcake and p Support sandstone pw Dp across p(r), steady-state, pressure pw Dp across mudcake p(r), steady-state, no mud-cake po borehole p(r) with mudcake distance (r) mudcake limited solids invasion depth Understanding the pressure support effect is vital!

Chip Support by p Across Wall Support force on the chip is proportional to the pressure drop across the chip, in direction of maximum pressure gradient. borehole wall shale chip p - Dp p Pressure gradient direction F Borehole filled with mud at a higher pressure than the shale Outward force on the shale chip (the seepage or hydrodynamic force) The pressure drop across the chip is related to time (transient effect) and the material permeability (increased by damage). This is why damaged shale can stay in place for some time

Damage Effect on p Support no Dp for wall support pressure mud pressure pw shale B(damaged borehole) transient pressure curves A(intact borehole) p(r) curves with time po formation pressure pressure gradient drops with time borehole distance (r) low permeability shale, no mudcake! highly damaged zone High sq leads to rock damage. This permits pressure penetration, loss of radial mud support. It is time-dependent, and reduces stability.

How Oil Base Muds Work Intact shales have tiny, water-wet pores: a high capillary entry pressure exists, therefore the pw - po acts very efficiently, right on hole wall, giving good support No filtrate invasion = little shale deterioration by geochemistry Shales shrink (-DV) by dewatering because of high salinity of the aqueous phase in OBM Undrained behavior (-Dp) maintained longer because of low k in shales, little H2O transfer All of these are beneficial in general

The Capillary Fringe high Δp Capillary fringe pw H2O oil pw – po = Dp = gow/2r po oil-base mud shale, water-wet Dp capacity gow = oil-water surface tension r r = curvature radius shale borehole Capillary fringe The major OBM effect is the capillary fringe support, which is why they work so well in intact shales

OBM – However… The capillary effect is lost in fractured shales - poor support, add a plugging agent The salinity effect is irrelevant in non-reactive (Quartz-Illite) shales If fissility planes exist in coaly shales or deep oil shales, OBM often worse than WBM OBM is usually much more expensive It is not the answer to all shale problems When it works (mainly in intact reactive shales), it is absolutely fabulous

WBM and Shales We must cope with fractures and fissures We must cope with high wall stresses We must cope with reactive shales Agents to block fissures are useful Gilsonite, LCM graded mud if large fissures Agents that are chemically beneficial Reduce clay reactivity Agents that lead to shrinkage Agents that reduce permeation and diffusion NaCl-saturated mud is almost always good for reactive ductile shales (but: slow ROP!)

KCl-Glycol Muds Potassium ion displaces Na+ in clay minerals K+ “fits” well into lattice = shale shrinkage Higher concentration of K+ = more shrinkage This shrinkage leads to reduced  near the wall = better stability! Glycol in suspension used. Why? Glycol particles block microfissures = less flow This tends to reduce and delay sloughing Also, glycol tends to adsorb on clay particles All three effects are generally beneficial for borehole stability

Glycol Effects… Proof of beneficial reduction of hydration This reduces swelling and borehole wall stress

Effect of K+-Induced Shrinkage Shrinkage reduces sq]max ! tangential stress -sq sq]max sq Far-field stresses Highly positive shrinkage effect! Kirsch elastic solution (expected) Effect of shale shrinkage borehole radius - r

Role of Glycol in K+-Glycol Mud It has a chemical effect, reducing swelling… It has a mechanical effect, blocks cracks This helps maintain the support pressure Glycol concentration must be kept above the cloud point (solubility limit) so that free droplets are throughout the mud glycol plugs microfissures pi pw pi chip pw F WBM chip support F: F ~ A·(pw – pi) A = chip area

Ca++-Based Muds Gyp muds (low pH, CaSO4) Lime muds (high pH CaO, Ca(OH)2) Lime muds seem particularly effective in controlling geochemically sensitive shales Cation exchange and shrinkage Increased interparticle bonding BUT! These high solids muds tend to reduce penetration rate = longer exposure However, they are inexpensive and thus “expendable”, + less environmental impact

Trajectory Choice (Avoidance?) Selected trajectories and careful choice of drill site can easily be applied to drilling on land. mudline sv = s3 Drilling to avoid crossing fault in fractured shale Drilling to cross fault and fissile shale close to 90º sHMAX = s1 extended reach fault deviated well troublesome fractured shale reservoir tight radius well Drill through faults and fissile shales at 90° ±25 °

New Products… Olefin & ester-based drilling fluids Eliminate swelling of reactive clays Chips and sloughed shale remain intact Lowered ECD compared to WBM Clay-free WBM (up to 4100 $/b!) Cesium sodium and potassium formates Extremely inhibitive on shale swelling Non-corrosive, compared to Cl- brines Lower torque, ECD, less barite sag Environmentally more acceptable (no Cl−) Clay-free synthetics (Baroid’s Accolade)

New Products… Starch/polyglycerol WBM Foams Polyglycerols reduce swelling (i.e. glycols) Starch gives viscosity, water-loss control Environmentally better (cuttings discharge) Lower ECD than many WBM Appears good in “ballooning” cases Should also use graded LCM in these cases Foams Used in underbalanced drilling (MW < po) Very high ROP, less exposure time Silicates (blend of Na & K silicates) Gelation occurs in low pH fmn, sealing pores

Other Systems… Silicates (blend of Na & K silicates) Gelation occurs in low pH fmn, sealing pores pH > ~9.5, no precipitation ALPLEX - Aluminum-based (Al(OH)3) invert emulsion Asphasol “air-blown” asphalt Specially treated Fills fissures, better “cake”, similar to gilsonite And many other polymers, particles, latex, chemicals, inhibitors, etc., etc…

Strength Reduction in Shales Experiments show that shales almost always weaken when geochemical processes act changes in concentration changes in ionic make-up shrinkage or expansion Micromechanical reasons: reduced interparticle electrostatic bonding microstrains deteriorate mineral cementation concentration changes alter stiffness But, if shale is supported, these effects can be considered secondary

Drilling-Induced Damage, Fractures shift of peak stress site stress reduction in sq]min sq, damaged sq sq, intact sr damaged zone po fractures are propagated during drilling and trips when effective mud pressures exceed sq borehole, pw σHMAX radius limited depth fractures σhmin

Coupling of Diffusion Processes Example: DT affects viscosity, therefore the flow rate into the shale is changed Example: C affects electrostatic attraction and adsorbed water content can change Example: Adsorbed water content changes affect effective stresses Example: Advective transport in micro-fissures can affect T, C … Clearly, a highly complex set of issues! Don’t worry about these details too much…

Permeability Control in Shales Natural k very low, microfissures increase k (fractured shales have intrinsic high k) Two options: reduce microfissure intensity or block the microfissures somehow Reducing microfissure intensity is difficult and causes slower drilling (high MW …) Blocking microfissures Starch in NaCl muds Glycol in KCl-Glycol muds Gilsonite and other deformable asphalts Graded LCM for larger fissures

Is Faster Drilling the Best Cure? Shorter exposure = less t for diffusion processes to act on the shale, therefore less deterioration develops Approaches to achieve more rapid drilling Smaller holes (e.g. slim exploration holes) Reduce or eliminate logging if possible Longer bit runs = fewer trips Improved hole hydraulics Underbalanced or near-balance drilling Small holes also are relatively stronger Expandable liners + bicentre bits…

Drilling Faster Reduces Problems 10 days drlg. 30 days drlg. Drilling exploration or production wells? Exploration wells can be slim hole, fast wells Reduced exposure time for troublesome shales Smaller diameter leads to greater stability Lower mud costs, etc. Fewer casing strings! Watch your ECD! 12¼“ hole, 10¼“ casing 9” hole 7” casing 6¼“ slim hole, exploration! Same depth, 5 casing strings Discuss UNOCAL experience in Indonesia

Pressure Managed Drilling A new concept, based on new understanding BHP kept constant using special equipment, ECD is maintained close to zero as possible Eliminate sudden Δp changes… Cyclic loading of fractured material degrades strength; if it is reduced, shale stays stronger Reduces filtrate and pressure invasion Reduces (or eliminates) breathing on connections, reduces uphole ballooning Allows one to operate closer to MW ~ po at hole bottom by eliminating ECD, hence faster drlg. Etc.

Alberta Example Deep Basin, upper soft, lower fractured OBM best higher up, WBM lower down! WBM OBM caliper caliper ductile shales mainly in-gauge sloughing fractured shale in gauge massive sloughing target

Scale Effect in Fractured Shales D = borehole diameter If L/D is very small, material acts “granular”; if very large, blocks do not affect stability no unstable blocks unstable shale blocks increasing stability L “intact” scale effect “granular” L = characteristic length of shale fabric L/D Also in coals! Smaller holes arte always more stable

Gilsonite, LCM for Fractured Shale Fractured shales slough because of noΔp Maintaining some Dp is a major benefit In OBM, solids alone do not seem to bridge In WBM, yes, but gilsonite helps greatly (available for OBM as well) Gilsonite + solids plug the natural fissures, reduce k, help Dp, improve “cake” efficiency Add designed LCM material to mud to help the fracture plugging Reduce MW rather than increase it Careful trip and connection policy

Gilsonite Plugs Fissures Natural asphalt Gilsonite is flexible at the T at depth in holes It can plug induced microfissures It also helps plug in fractured shales This helps sustain support pressure Diffusion of p, C into shale is retarded Shales stay intact longer gilsonite plugs microfissures pi pw pi chip pw F WBM chip support F: F ~ A·(pw – pi) A = chip area Also available for OBM and synthetic muds

Special Pills for Fractured Shales Pump down a polymer slug, close BOP, squeeze polymer through the drill bit, raise bit, Allow to set, drill through the plugged zone Photos courtesy Doug Coughron (BP) IADC/SPE 74518

Thermal Destabilization Shear strength criterion for the rock around the borehole shear stress heating leads to borehole destabilization initial conditions Y sr To po sq mud support i,j T + DT Dsq normal stress sq sr sq + Dsq When the stress state semicircle “touches” the strength criterion, it is assumed that this is the onset of rock deterioration (not necessarily borehole collapse…)

Thermal Alterations of  These curves show hoop stress calculated using an assumption of heating and an assumption of cooling. Heating a borehole increases σθ, and leads to hole problems. Cooling the borehole is always beneficial to stability. tangential stress - sq Except for heating, most processes reduce the sq]max value at the borehole wall sq (r) for heating sq]max sq (r) for cooling Initial sh Kirsch elastic solution thermoelastic heating (convection) thermoelastic cooling (convection) To Tw radius borehole

What Happens with Hot Mud? The rock in the borehole wall is heated Thermal expansion takes place This “attracts” stress to the expanding zone around the well The peak stress rises right at the borehole wall, and yield and sloughing is likely For cooling, the rock shrinks; this allows the stress concentration to be displaced away from the borehole, helping stability Cooling occurs at and above the bit Heating occurs farther uphole

Heating and Cooling in the Hole in tanks Heating occurs uphole, cooling downhole. The heating effect can be large, exceptionally 30-35°C in long open-hole sections in areas with high T gradients. Heating is most serious at the last shoe. The shale expands, and this increases sq, often promoting failure and sloughing. At the bit, cooling, shrinkage, both of which enhance stability. Commercial software exists to draw these curves mud up annulus casing heating geothermal temperature shoe open hole +T mud down pipe drill pipe mud temperature BHA -T cooling depth bit

Expansion and Borehole Stresses See Module C This is the standard elastic case of borehole stress redistribution “lost” s “elastic” rocks resistribute the “lost” stress D High sq near the hole This is the case of rock heating when the mud is hotter than the formation “elastic” rocks redistribute thermal stresses as well expanding “rocks”

Cooling the Drilling Fluid Reduces the stresses on the borehole wall Improves the stability of the mud system Improves safety on the rig, especially offshore in hot drilling areas Reduces the rate of diffusion of chemicals into the shale, slowing down deterioration Helps protect the drill bit and the bottom-hole assembly Should be more widely used

Summary There are many reasons for borehole instability You must assess the reason for instability Then, solutions will be possible Mud weight and hydraulics control Oil based mud for ductile shale is very good Chemical solutions help as well Plugging the wall for fractured shale Cooling the mud And so on