The Sociological Perspective & Research Process Sociology 101 Chapter 1 The Sociological Perspective & Research Process

What Is Sociology? It is one of the Social Sciences along with: Psychology, Anthropology, Criminology, Economics, Political Science, and History The study of social life and the social causes and consequences of human behavior Sociologists look for the social causes/influences of human behavior Looks beyond psychology Sociologists rely on “The Sociological Imagination”

The Sociological Imagination is the Ability to See the Relationship Between Individual Experiences and the Larger Society in Which They Occur.

Want to “peel” back the layers of reality Sociologists try not to take anything for granted or accept anything at face value Want to “peel” back the layers of reality Are generally skeptical of explanations about human behavior or situations until proven to be true Always ask “why?” and “how?”

Why ????

Because not everything is what it seems...

Also, We Sometimes Rely On Common Sense To Explain Human Behavior And Other Situations

Examples Those who suffered from child abuse are more likely to abuse their children Those who live together before marriage have a better chance of a successful marriage than those who did not live together Couples with children are happier than those who do not have children The majority of those on welfare are lazy and really don’t want to work

Why Study Sociology? Helps us determine why people do the things that they do E.g. Why do some people grow up to be child abusers, alcoholics, poor, etc.? Allows us to make important decisions regarding policies, laws, etc. that effect society Example: What is the best way to treat poverty

How And Why Did Sociology Emerge? Sociology is the direct product of 19th century humanism and skepticism Humanism- The study of thought based upon human interests “Humans are the measure of all things” Skepticism- A philosophical term that means to suspend belief in God and/or the supernatural

Several philosophical and social changes contributed to the emergence of sociology Philosophical change The emergence of humanism & skepticism The Enlightenment (1693-1800) Humanism & Skepticism The rise of empiricism (positivism) Social Changes The growth of science Revolutions American (1775 – 1783) French (1789 – 1799) Auguste Comte’s goal was to rebuild France Industrialization & urbanization Created several “social problems” that needed to be solved

Suicide As A “Social Problem” 19th Century governments began collecting statistics on: Criminal activity Birth and death rates Suicide rates

The Result: Social scientists discovered patterns that seemed contradictory to common sense Noticed that these patterns remained consistent, again defying common sense

Suicide As An Example Common sense suggested suicide was an individualistic, random action Yet, if this were true, we would expect to see fluctuations, not stable patterns Yet 3 patterns emerged Rates were extremely stable from year to year Rates often varied greatly from one place to another Suicide rates were rising all over Europe

Emile Durkheim’s Study of Suicide Durkheim challenged purely psychological explanations for suicide Noticed that suicide was more than just an individual act, social forces played a role He found that two things determine who is at risk for suicide Social integration (How imbedded in a social network are you?) Social regulation (How tightly does the society or reference group regulate you?) Found that there were four types of suicide, each of which corresponded to the two variables above

Integration Regulation High Low High Low

Durkheim’s 4 Types of Suicide Altruistic (extreme social integration) Found that those who were extremely integrated in groups had high suicide rates E.g. Military personal Egoistic (lack of social integration) Found that people with few family and friendship ties had higher suicide rates Fatalistic (extreme social regulation) Found that those whose lives were excessively ordered by agents over whom they have no control had higher suicide rates E.g. prisoners and mental patients

Anomic (lack of social regulation) Found that those whose lives were loosely regulated had higher suicide rates E.g. Individuals with a lot of power, rock stars (Kurt Cobain)

Conclusions Psychological explanations cannot fully explain why people commit suicide Social integration and regulation help determine who is more at risk for suicide In short, social relationships (or lack thereof) shape the decision to commit suicide

The Four Sociological Perspectives Functionalism Conflict Interactionist Postmodern

The Conflict Perspective Several types of conflict theory The Marxist & Neo-Marxist approach Focuses on conflict between economic classes The Critical approach Focuses on conflict between races and ethnic groups The Feminist approach Focuses on conflict between the sexes

The Conflict Perspective Major theorists Karl Marx Max Weber C. Wright Mills

The Conflict Perspective Society is diverse; everyone is competing for resources Power is unequally distributed Marxists suggests that capitalistic societies consist of 2 classes: Bourgeoisie: those who own the means of production Proletariat: those who sell their labor Feminists argue that men generally have more power than women The powerful oppress the powerless The powerful create self-serving social policies There are always winners and losers Conflict theory challenges the status quo

The Functionalist Perspective Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton Major Assumptions Society is a system of highly integrated parts Each part works to maintain the whole Each part has a function Manifest, latent, dysfunction There is value consensus Rapid change is not desirable Typically supports the status quo

The Interpretive Perspective Max Weber, Georg Simmel, George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer The world is socially created through the use of mutually understood symbols Signs, gestures, language, shared values Reality is based on subjective interpretation, not objective fact What is defined as real is real in its consequence (W.I. Thomas) There is not one reality; rather there are multiple realties Reality is relative to time, place, and person E.g. Smoking as a deviant activity

The Postmodern Perspective Roland Barthes, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida Postmodern Society is characterized by: An Information explosion A rise in consumerism Contributions to a global village Emphasis on communication technology Has shrunk the world and changed the way we view “reality” Time (History) and space (geography) are no longer viewed as unified and coherent in the postmodern world

Anti-foundational Rejects the “grand narratives” of previous theories There are no absolutes All truth is relative All meaning is a social construction (we make it up) Religion, Science, History, Ethics, etc. A-historical History is constructed by those in power History is not a record of objective facts History is constructed by those who successfully “defeat” others who are writing opposing views of history

Research Methods Two Types Quantitative (Deductive) You start with a theory, and then collect data to test the theory Qualitative (Inductive) You collect data and then develop (induce) a theory that explains the data you collected

Two Types of Reasoning Specifics Inductive Generalization Ways of Deductive Specifics Generalization

Select and Define the Research Problem DEDUCTIVE METHOD (Classic) INDUCTIVE METHOD (Inclusive Select and Define the Research Problem Review the Literature Review the Literature Develop the Research Design Formulate the Hypothesis Develop the Research Design Collect/Analyze the Data Develop the Research Design Collect/Analyze the Data Review the Literature Collect/Analyze the Data Generate Hypotheses for Theory Construction; Draw Conclusions; Report Findings Draw Conclusion; Report Findings

Ways To Gather Data Surveys Semi Structured Interviews Questionnaires Structured Interviews Semi Structured Interviews Secondary Analysis of Existing Data Field Research Participant Observation Ethnography Experiments

Two Types of Samples Non-Probability Samples Probability Samples Cannot generalize findings Probability Samples Can generalize findings

Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables Kids who have a delinquent record are more likely to come from single parent homes Women are more likely than men to cheat in a marriage relationship Rebellious kids are more likely to listen to at least one of the following musical styles: hip-hop, heavy metal, industrial, and/or goth Freshman students who join fraternities or sororities will adjust easier to college life than those who live in dorms Lawyers are more likely to commit murder than accountants

4 Levels of Measurement Qualitative Nominal (Categorical) Quantiative Ordinal Interval Ratio

Three Criteria For Determining Causation Correlation (association) Time Order Non-Spuriousness

Correlation Positive Negative None

Correlation Of Variables B. Positive Correlation #2 As depression decreases, suicide decreases Depression Suicide Rate As Depression Increases, Suicide Increases Depression Suicide Rate A. Positive Correlation #1 Social Integration Suicide Rate C. Negative Correlation #1 As Social Integration Decreases Suicide Increases D. Negative Correlation #2 As social integration increases suicide decreases Social Integration Suicide Rate

As income increases crime decreases Religiosity decreases with income Political conservatism increases with religiosity Individuals with large noses have a better sense of smell than individuals with smaller noses Pipe smokers are more likely to live longer than non-smokers The faster one drives the greater the risk of getting into an accident Athletes will score higher on the history 101 exam than non-athletes