Chapter 4 Russia

I. Authoritarian Oligarchy or Budding Democracy Between 1945-1991 global politics defined by competition between the USA and USSR Collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 left the Russian Federation as the largest piece of territory remaining from the USSR, its population was cut in half, but it still remained the largest country in the world in terms of geographic size Boris Yeltsin became 1st president of the Russian Federation, he initiated “Shock Therapy” reforms Democracy Free Market Economy

Oligarchy vs. Democracy Continued Oligarchy – a small group of Yeltsin’s family members and personal advisors took control of government and granted themselves favors and inviting political and economic corruption Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin in 1999 and has attempted to contain the oligarchies influence in some aspects of government Centralization of Power in President Movement towards authoritarian rule Unpredictability of Russia (No experience with democracy and free market economy) Slavic roots provide strong tendency to autocratic rule

II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power Most of 20th century authority in Soviet Russia came from the Politburo of the Communist Party Politburo – small group of men who climbed the ranks of the party through the nomenklatura system. Nomenklatura – ordered path from local party soviets to the “commanding heights” of leadership When the Soviet Union dissolved the authority and power of the Politburo dissolved with it.

III. Legitimacy Political legitimacy for Russia is currently very low, partly because changes are a drastic departure from the past Recent evidence that country is stabilizing under Putin. Putin may use authoritarian strategies to solidify Russia’s weak, illiberal democracy. Historically Russia’s political legitimacy has been based on strong, centralized, autocratic rule Tsars Communist rule propagated by Marxism-Leninism Democratic-Centralism: rule by a few for the benefit of the many Stalinism changed the regime to totalitarianism Constitution of 1993 – provided for a strong president, although power of the president can technically be checked by popular elections and the Duma

IV. Historical Influences on Politics Absolute, Centralized Rule Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity – ethnic diversity and numerous “republics” and “autonomous regions” reflected in name “Russian Federation” Revolutions of 20th Century

V. Political Culture Characteristics Geographic Setting Eastern Orthodoxy Equality of Result Hostile toward Government Importance of Nationality

Geographic Setting Geographic Setting Largest country in world Contains 11 time zones Majority of country is north of 49th degree latitude (U.S. – Canada border) Abundance of Natural Resources that exist in inhospitable or inaccessible geographic locations

Eastern Orthodoxy Eastern Orthodoxy Early in their history Russians established ties with Constantinople and adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity as their religion This meant that they did not share the values of the Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Russians came to value a strong state to protect them from geographic vulnerabilities instead of individualism Russian statism existed in contrast to Western “civil society”

Equality of Result Equality of Result Communist regime instilled a value of equality in the Russian people already strong in a country of peasants with similar living standards Egalitarianism has survived the fall of the Soviet Union Most Russians resent differences of wealth or income Equality of Result vs. Equality of Opportunity Russian political culture is not particularly conducive to the development of capitalism

Hostility toward Government & Nationality Hostility to Gov’t Despite strong, central authority and Russian statism citizens can be surprisingly hostile toward their government Years of repression spark resentment that leads to badmouthing of political leaders Pessimism towards political and economic policies Importance of Nationality Cultural heterogeneity Discrimination and historical stereotypes Baltic peoples usually viewed favorably, Muslim-Turks viewed in a negative light Anti-Semitism was strong under the Tsars, some nationalists in Russia blame the Jews for Russia’s current problems

VI. Political & Economic Change Long period of Autocratic rule by Tsars – ruled Russia from the 14th century to the early 20th. Control of Russia passed down through the Romanov family from the 17th century on, but transitions were often accompanied by brutality and assassinations 20th century rule by Communist Party – began in 1917 when Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized control of the government after the last tsar, Nicholas II, was deposed. The regime toppled in 1991 when a failed coup from within the government created chaos Regime change to Democracy and Free Markets in 1991 – President Boris Yeltsin put western-style reforms in place to help create the Russian Federation

19th Century Russia invaded by Napoleon in 1812 Alexander I resists invasion and ultimately drives French out of Russia Russian intellectuals influenced by Western thought grew weary of tsarist absolutism and revolted: Decembrist Revolt of 1825 Revolt crushed by Nicholas I Crimean War – Russia defeated by UK, France, and Ottoman Empire. Defeat was a significant blow for confidence in tsarist leadership among Russians Tsars used secret police for investigations, as well as exiling and execution of dissenters in 19th century Alexander II only 19th century tsar to embrace reforms, however he was assassinated in 1881. He freed Russian serfs Set up regional zemstvas (assemblies) Alexander III reacted to assassination by undoing reforms and intensifying efforts of secret police.

Revolution of 1917 Causes Russia’s defeat in Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Ineffectiveness in World War I Riots first break out in 1905 after Russians defeated by Japanese Revolts were suppressed but state collapsed in 1917 amidst World War I Russian soldiers were fighting without guns and shoes, military defections from the war helped send the state into chaos

Lenin and the Bolsheviks Mensheviks – Russian Marxists who believed that socialist revolutions would first take place in industrialized countries such as Germany and England, Russians would have to wait to modernize Vladimir Lenin – communist who disagreed with Mensheviks, he argued for democratic-centralism, or a “vanguard” leadership group to lead the revolution in the name of the people Bolsheviks – followers of Lenin, practice Marxism-Leninism, took control of Russian government in late 1917 (October Revolution).

Stalinism Stalin places Communist Party (CPSU) at center of control Leaders identified through nomenklatura – process of selecting individuals from lower levels within party (Kept a file for anybody who was somebody) Politburo: “heart and soul” of Communist Party, group of 12 men from the Central Committee who ran the country, all government agencies and departments were at their disposal and carried out their decisions -General Secretary: head of the Politburo, “dictator” of the country (Stalin was General Secretary from 1927–1953)

Stalinism II Collectivization & Industrialization Replaced the NEP with “collective farms” Private land ownership abolished, kulaks forced to move to cities or labor camps Five-Year Plans: ambitious goals for production of heavy industry such as oil, steel, and electricity. Labor and factories fueled by agricultural surplus produced from the farms Gosplan: Central State Planning Commission, in charge of Five-Year Plans, became the center for the economy, determined production and distribution of virtually all goods in Soviet Union Stalinism – the two-pronged program of collectivization and industrialization, carried out by central planning, executed with force and brutality

Stalin’s Foreign Policy Primary concern internal development, foreign policy was meant to support this Stalin advocated “socialism in one country” Signed Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939 Tensions between Soviets and the West, particularly the United States, become a growing foreign policy concern for Stalin Cold War

The Purges Execution of millions of Soviet citizens As many as one million communist party members executed Stalin obsessed with disloyalty within the party Generals, Central Committee members, and Politburo officials purged as a result of Stalin’s paranoia

Gorbachev Takes over as General Secretary in the mid-1980’s Leads a younger generation of communists Educated and more “westernized” then previous Soviet leaders Initiates a wave of reforms that included: Glasnost Perestroika Demokratizatsiia

Glasnost – “Openness” Open discussion of political, social, and economic issues Allowed for open criticism of government and government policies Gorbachev stressed that the ultimate test of the party lay in improving the economic well-being of the country and it’s people Open market relations Pragmatic economic policy Less secretive government

Perestroika – “Restructuring” Loosened controls of the Communist Party, allowing group formation in other sectors of society Economic Restructuring Modernization from within Transfer economic power from central government to private hands and market economy Authorization of privately owned companies Penalties for under-performing state factories Price reforms Encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies Leasing of farm land outside the collective farms

Demokratizatsiia Gorbachev wanted to insert some democratic characteristics into the old Soviet structure However, he did want to maintain Communist Party control Reforms included: A new Congress of People’s Deputies with directly elected representatives New position of “President” that was selected by the Congress Deputies were often critical of Gorbachev Increasing levels of displeasure with government from both liberal and conservative members of Communist Party

Revolution of 1991 August 1991 Led by “Conservatives” (those opposed to, or who wanted to abandon Gorbachev’s reforms) Vice-president Head of the KGB Top military advisers Coup failed when popular protests erupted and soldiers defected rather than support their leaders Protesters were led by Boris Yeltsin, president elect of the Russian Republic Gorbachev restored to power, but by December 1991 eleven Soviet republics declared their independence Gorbachev officially announces dissolution of Soviet Union

Boris Yeltsin Former member of Politburo, removed because his radical views offended conservatives Even more extreme than Gorbachev Elected president of Russian Republic as result of voting procedures put in place by Gorbachev Emerged as president of the largest republic, Russian Federation, after Soviet Union dissolves Attempts to create a “western-style” democracy “Shock Therapy” economic reforms (Immediate market economy) Russian economy does not respond to “shock therapy” reforms Conflict erupts between Yeltsin and the Duma

Yeltsin II Poor president Hires and fires numerous prime ministers Alcoholic & frequently ill; this leads to erratic political behavior Resigns before the 2000 elections Vladimir Putin, Yeltsin’s prime minister, takes over and wins the 2000 & 2004 elections

VII. Citizens, Society, and the State Nationality Most important single cleavage in Russia 80% of population is Russian Others include: Tatars Ukrainians Armenians Chuvashes Bashkis Byelorussians Moldavians

Nationality continued Nationality cleavages determine the organization of the country into “federations”, “autonomous regions”, republics, and provinces Many ethnic groups would like to have their independence, but are enticed by trade benefits with the Russian government to stay in the Federation Chechnya is the one exception

Chechnya Primarily Muslim region of Russia Contains some valuable resources, such as oil fields Independence movement is strong, and Russian government has struggled to keep Chechnya region within its control Chechens have reverted to terrorist tactics including taking over a heavily attended Russian theater and in 2004 the seizure of a school that resulted in the deaths of over 350 people, mostly children

VII. Citizens, Society, and the State continued Religion Russian Orthodox under the tsars All religion prohibited during the Soviet Unions rule Boris Yeltsin encouraged Russian Orthodox Church to reestablish itself as a signal of a break from communism and a reflection of old Russian nationalism Other religions represented in very small percentages (Roman Catholic, Jews, Muslims, Protestants)

VII. Citizens, Society, and the State continued Social Class Russian society much more egalitarian than western societies with a few notable exceptions Nomenklatura: only about 7% of the citizenry were CPSU members, and all political leaders were chosen from this group. However within this group egalitarian measures were followed, and little significance was given to economic and social background Business Oligarchy: emerged during Yeltsin’s regime, often former KGB and CPSU leaders, granted favors by Yeltsin government to promote business. Struggled in late 1990’s but have emerged as leaders in Russia after acquiring major corporations, ie. Media Most & Yukos Oil. Putin had to arrest or send into exile CEO’s of these companies for refusing to pay or underpaying government taxes

Rural vs. Urban Life 73% of all Russians live in urban settings, usually in the western part of the country Economic divide between rural and urban residents is wide, however, all Russians have been hit hard by recent economic woes of the post-Cold War Russia Urban residents tend to be more educated and in touch with western culture

Political Participation During Soviet rule political participation was forced, and therefore was close to 100% Gorbachev’s reforms created competitive elections in the Soviet Union that followed through to the Russian Federation In 1991 voter turnout in the Russian Federation was higher than the U.S. Political participation for the Duma elections of 1993 was only 50.3%, but this followed a failed attempt by the Duma to take over the country Presidential voter turnout has declined from 75% in 1991 elections to less than 65% for the 2004 elections Lack of participation may be due to Russia’s underdeveloped civil society Only 1% of Russia’s citizens report being a member of a political party Few Russians are members of clubs, churches, or cultural groups

VIII. Political Institutions (Federalism or Unitary) Although the Soviet Union was highly centralized, it still maintained a federal government structure Russian Federation has retained this model, with the current regime consisting of 89 regions, 21 of which are ethnically non-Russian by majority Each region is bound by treaty to the Federation, not all have officially signed on (Chechnya) Most regions are called “republics” Many republics ruled themselves independently, but Putin has cracked down on this Putin ended direct election of the 89 regional governors, they are now nominated by the president and confirmed by the regional legislatures

IX. Linkage Institutions Political Parties Elections Interest Groups Media

Political Parties Began forming after Revolution of 1991 Small, factional Formed around particular leaders “Bloc of General Andrey Nikolaev and Academician Svyaloslav Fyodorov” “Yuri Boldyrev Movement” (“Yabloko”) Formed around particular issues “Party of Pensioners” “Agrarian Party of Russia” “Women of Russia” Political Parties Today (United Russia, Communist Party, Reform Parties)

United Russia Founded in April 2001 Merger between “Fatherland All-Russia” Party and the “United Party of Russia” United Party put together by oligarch Boris Berezovsky and other entrepreneurs to support Putin in the election of 2000 Merger put even more political support behind Putin United Russia won 221 of the 450 Duma seats in 2004 elections Putin won re-election in 2004 as the United Russia candidate United Russia is hard to define other than that it is pro-Putin

Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) Communist Party of the old Soviet Union (CPSU) After 1995 elections held 157 of the 450 Duma seats After parliamentary election of 2003 only retained 51 of the 450 Duma seats Party is less reformist than other parties, Zyuganov opposed the reforms initiated by Gorbachev Party emphasizes central planning and nationalism Would like to see Russia regain territories it lost after Soviet Union dissolution

Reformist Parties Yabloko Union of Right Forces Taken strongest stand for pro-democracy Survived since 1993 Name is acronym for its three founders, also means “apple” Gained 4.4% of vote in 2003 parliamentary elections (4 seats) making it ineligible for proportional representation Union of Right Forces “Rightest” only in the sense of seeking truth Emphasizes development of free market Supports privatization of industry Had 29 seats in Duma prior to 2003 After 2003 elections only won 3 seats (less than 5% of the vote)

Liberal Democratic Party Controversial party Extreme nationalist Anti-semitic Sexist Attacks reformist leaders and disliked Yeltsin Said he would use nuclear weapons on Japan if he were elected Party reformulated as “Zhirinovsky’s Bloc” for 2000 presidential election, he received 2.7% of vote Party did receive about 11% of vote in 2003 Duma elections (won 37 seats)

Elections 3 types Referendum Duma Elections Presidential Elections

Constitution of 1993 Created a three-branch government President & Prime Minister Lower legislative house (DUMA) Constitutional Court Referendum - allowed for president to call for national referenda by popular vote on important issues Yeltsin’s first referendum was on his job performance Second was for approval of the constitution itself

Interest Groups II Huge fortunes made by oligarchs and the mafia offend the equality of opportunity principle of the Russian people Putin arrested television magnate Vladimir Gusinsky for corruption and his company was given to a state-owned monopoly In 2003, Mikhail Khodorvsky, the richest man in Russia and CEO of the Yukos Oil Company was arrested as a signal that the Russian government was consolidating power Yukos was slapped with massive penalties and additional taxes, forcing it into bankruptcy Russian Media – a linkage institution with close ties to both the state and the oligarchy, has been manipulated by dominant political and interest groups to pursue their own causes

X. Institutions of Government A. President & Prime Minister Duties of the President Appoints the prime minister and cabinet – Duma must approve prime minister’s appointment, but if they reject the president’s nominee three times, the president may dissolve the Duma Issue decrees that have force of law – cabinet has great deal of power, Duma can not censure cabinet according to Constitution of 1993 Dissolve the Duma – done by Yeltsin during legislative coup attempt of 1993 Prime Minister: relationship between PM and President not exactly clear, but with no vice-president if anything happens to president the PM assumes the office of president

B. Bicameral Legislature Duma Lower House 450 deputies Half chosen by proportional representation Half by single-member district plurality Passes Bills Approves Budgets Confirms president’s political appointments Federation Council Upper House Two members elected from each of the 89 regions of the federation Power to delay legislation On paper Federation Council can change boundaries of republics, ratify use of armed forces, and appoint and remove judges. These powers have yet to be use however

C. Judiciary Supreme Court Constitutional Court Created by 1993 Constitution Serves as final court of appeals in criminal & civil cases Constitutional Court 19 members Appointed by president and confirmed by Federation Council

D. Military Was a source of strength during the Soviet era, 1945-1991 Once stood at over 4 million men Generally did not get involved in politics, this continues under the Russian Federation One prominent general, Alexander Lebed, gained political following before the 1996 election and had to be coopted by Yeltsin in order for Yeltsin to win reelection Suffered significant humiliation from the late 1980’s to early 21st century Withdrawal from Afghanistan Defeated by Chechen guerrillas in 1994-1996 conflict Often ill-equipped, Russian soldiers had to feed themselves and went unpaid for months in late 1990’s and early 21st century

XI. Public Policy/Current Issues The Economy At the heart of the Soviet demise in 1991 Perestroika reforms – market economy programs inserted into traditional centralized state ownership design “Shock Therapy reforms” – created chaotic conditions that resulted in a small group of entrepreneurs running the economy In 1997 economy collapsed when government defaulted on billions of dollars of debts Russian stock market lost half its value, threatened global markets as well Ruble lost value rapidly, by 2002 it took more than 30,000 rubles to equal one dollar The overall economy did see slight improvements in 1999–2000 In 2004 the economy grew 7%, and standards of living improved, the first real signs that the Russian economy was starting to thrive again

Foreign Policy Relations with Former Republics Confederation of Independent States (CIS) Russia is the clear leader of organization Is not nearly as successful, economically and politically, as the EU Bonded together by trade agreements Tensions of nationality issues Putin’s meddling in Ukrainian election of 2004 was cause for concern Relations with the World Adjustment period for Russia following Cold War and loss of superpower status Offered aid and foreign investment by U.S. Accepted into the G-7 (now known as G-8) UN Security Council permanent member Russia set to join the WTO in July 2007