Prenatal Development And Birth 2 Prenatal Development And Birth Theories of Development “This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, pf any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.” http://www.ablongman.com/bee4e Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud Psychosexual Theory Worked with mental patients Id Ego Superego Defense Mechanisms Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Common Defense Mechanisms See page in your book. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychosexual Stages These are the stages of development and their corresponding characteristics in adulthood. Of these, the greatest mention in research is of the oral, anal and phallic stages and their influence on negative personality development. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson Development is influenced by common cultural demands. Each stage of development requires the solution of a crisis. Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative. Tied development to the age of the child and the cultural demands for children of that age. Sees development as conflict between a person’s needs, wants, and desires and society’s demands at a particular age. These establish a crisis for each stage with a positive or a negative outcome possible. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Psychosocial Theory See Page in your book. Four stages have been the focus of the greatest amount of theorizing and research: Trust in infancy; Identity in adolescence; Intimacy in adulthood; and Generativity in middle adulthood. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Learning Theories Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning Reflex Stimulus – Response connection Unlearned Unconditioned Stimulus elicits Unconditioned Response Food automatically elicits Salivation Learned Conditioned Stimulus elicit Conditioned Response Smell of food (bacon) elicits Salivation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Learning Theories B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning Behaviors are dependent on “Reinforcement” Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment Shaping Extinction Positive Reinforcement increases the chances a behavior will happen again. Negative Reinforcement – learning that occurs when a specific behavior causes something unpleasant to stop. Punishment stops a behavior. Two types – application of a painful stimulus; the removal of positive reinforcement. Shaping – reinforcing successive approximations of a desired response. Extinction – the gradual elimination of a behavior through repeated non-reinforcement. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Learning Theories Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory Observational Learning Learning that results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for a behavior. Dependent on four factors Attention Memory Physical capabilities Motivation Self - Efficacy Self-Efficacy – expectancies about what we can and cannot do. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget Scheme internal cognitive structure. Assimilation process of using schemes to make sense of experiences. Accommodation changing a scheme to incorporate new information. Equilibration – balancing assimilation and accommodation Scheme – Internal cognitive structure that provides an individual with a procedure to follow in a specific circumstance. Assimilation uses existing schemes to make decisions based on similarities. Accommodation – making new schemes or modifying old schemes based on differences in experience. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Theories Jean Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage Logical thinking evolves in four stages. You cannot skip stages or speed them up according to Piaget. Sensorimotor Stage - (Birth to 18 months) Using sensory information and motor movements to create schemes as children explore their environment. Preoperational Stage – (18 months to age 6) Youngsters acquire symbolic schemes such as language and fantasy. Concrete Operational Stage – (6 to 12 year olds) Children begin to think logically based on previous experiences. Formal Operational Stage – (Adolescence) Ability to think about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Theories Information Processing Theory Thinking about and studying memory processes. Three Stage Theory of Memory Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Cognitive development gets faster with age and as children develop new strategies for memory. Three Stage Theory of Memory Sensory Memory – encoding begins with the senses. Short-Term Memory – limited capacity and duration – 7+/- 2 items; 20-30 seconds. Long-Term Memory – unlimited capacity and duration. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Theories Cognitive development gets faster with age and as children develop new strategies for memory. Three Stage Theory of Memory Sensory Memory – encoding begins with the senses. Short-Term Memory – limited capacity and duration – 7+/- 2 items; 20-30 seconds. Long-Term Memory – unlimited capacity and duration. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Questions to Ponder Pick three defense mechanisms and write your own personal example of them. You may not use the book examples. Looking at ecological systems theory, describe your personal exosystem, macrosystem, and microsystem influences. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Biological Theories Nativism The view that humans possess unique genetic traits. Ethology Genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival. Sociobiology The study of society using methods and concepts of biological science. Nativism – supported by behaviors that occur early in life which develop in almost all cultures. Ethology – building on natural selection, looks at behaviors that promote survival such as language development, and the focus of the baby on the adults in their world. Sociobiology – promote the idea that individuals have the best chance for survival when living in groups. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Biological Theories Behavioral Genetics The effects of heredity on individual differences. Related people such as children and parents have similar traits influenced by genes. Identical and fraternal twin studies are used to show the relative influence of genetics and environment on development. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Socio-Cultural Theory Lev Vygotsky Complex forms of thinking have their origin in social interactions. Children’s learning of new cognitive skills is guided by a skilled social partner (adult) Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding Social interactions offer children an opportunity to learn through interaction and asking questions in a supportive environment. Zone of Proximal Development – that zone where the child cannot do a behavior by themselves but can do it with the help of a skilled social partner. Scaffolding – adapting the environment to gain the child’s attention, build on learning in small steps, and provide adequate motivation. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Ecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner Explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments. Contexts Macrosystem Exosystem Microsystem Contexts Macrosystem – values and beliefs of the culture. Exosystem – supporting institutions that mainly work in the background indirectly. Microsystem – families, the child’s school, the child’s religious institution – things the child has immediate contact with. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Ecological Theory Two hypothetical children, growing up in widely different ecological settings, illustrate the layers in Bronfenbrenner’s model. To understand how the environment affects a child, developmentalists would need to study every aspect of this complex system simultaneously—a tall order. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Eclecticism Multiple Theoretical Approaches Build on ideas from several sources. Avoids rigid adherence to a single theory. Allows deeper probing of behavior using better research. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Comparing Theories Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Comparing Theories Evaluation of Usefulness of each theory Generate predictions that can be tested. Heuristic value – the degree to which it stimulates research. Practical value. Explain the basic facts of development. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Prenatal Development And Birth 2 Prenatal Development And Birth End Show “This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, pf any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.” Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006