Cognitive LoA MEMORY

Thought to ponder and Discuss… From what you have learned thus far, or from personal experience, do you think all memories are stored in the same way? Why or why not?

Types of Memory & Encoding How many types of memory do you think exist?  Name & describe them Encoding: Converting stimuli/information so it can be stored within the brain  What about types of encoding?

Types of Memory Iconic (Visual) Echoic (Auditory) Flashbulb Memory: A vivid memory of an emotional event

Prospective and Retrospective Memory (NOT IN YOUR BOOK!) Prospective Memory: remembering to do something in the future Ex. I need to remember to get my wife an anniversary gift. Retrospective Memory: remembering you already did something in the past Ex. I already got my wife an anniversary gift

Context Effects Memory Retrieval Context-dependent memory: Being able to retrieve information better when you are in the same context you learned it in. Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory:  State-Dependent Memory: information is most easily recalled when in same “state” of consciousness it was learned in.  Mood Congruent Memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.

Types of Encoding There are three or four main types of encoding:  Acoustic encoding is the processing and encoding of sound, words and other auditory input  Visual encoding is the process of encoding images and visual sensory information.  Tactile encoding is the encoding of how something feels, normally through the sense of touch.  Semantic encoding is the process of encoding sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a particular context, rather than deriving from a particular sense. 

Process of Encoding: 2 Types Encoding EffortfulAutomatic

 unconscious encoding of incidental information  space  time  frequency  well-learned information  word meanings  we can learn automatic processing  reading backwards Automatic Processing (Type 1)

Automatic Processing: Reading Backwards Reading backwards requires effort at first but after practice becomes automatic..citamotua emoceb nac gnissecorp luftroffE Automatic processing allows us to do multiple things at once and re-illustrates the concept of parallel processing.

Effortful Processing (Type 2) Effortful Processing: type of encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Ex: Learning new vocabulary terms, memorizing historical events/chronology, etc. Encoding can be aided by maintenance rehearsal: simple rote repetition of information in consciousness or even more successfully by elaborate rehearsal: processing of information for meaning which can more easily help produce long term memories.

King of Memory Experiments: Hermann Ebbinghaus Wanted to research capacity of verbal memory. Looked to study to see capacity of peoples’ memories to study strings of non-sense syllables. Ex: JIH, FUB, YOX, XIR,

Findings of Ebbinghaus” 1. Practice makes perfect. The more rehearsal he did on day 1, the less rehearsal it took to learn the syllables again on day 2. Overlearning increased retention (overlearning effect) 2. The Spacing Effect: the tendency for studying over a long period of time produces better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. SPACED STUDYING BEATS CRAMMING!!! 3. Serial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Ex: Presidents

Explaining the Serial Position Effect Primacy Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the beginning of a list since these are often the terms we have seen the most when reviewing. Recency Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the end of the list a since these are the terms we have seen most RECENTLY. MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.

Retrieval Cues: Reminders associated with information we are trying to retrieve Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations of memory. Distributed practice: Spreading memorization out over several sessions (BEST) Massed practice (AKA Cramming): One session  Mnemonic devices: ROY G BIV Method of Loci: Association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path Peg word mnemonic: 1 st memorizing a scheme and then mentally picturing items

Memory Retrieval Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.  Ex: fill in the blank, essay questions Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.  Ex: multiple choice, matching Reconstruction of Memories: Retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, losing, or changing details to fit a schema  Often memories have missing pieces thus resulting in reconstruction  Loftus’ car crash experiment

Forgetting Forgetting is a result of either: 1. Encoding Failure  Not paying attention to certain stimuli (selective attention) 2. Storage Decay  Gradual fading of the physical memory trace  Neural connections are no longer there 3. Retrieval Failure from LTM o Relearning: A measure of retention of memory that assessed the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again o *if relearning takes as much time as the initial learning, the information has decayed

Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting is the idea that people unknowingly revise their history.  Ex: I broke up with her; she didn't break up with me. What purpose might motivated forgetting serve?

Motivated Forgetting: A Freudian Concept Repression: idea put forth by psychoanalytic theorists like Freud which states anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories can be banished from consciousness. Ex: child abuse, rape, incest may be repressed and not be able to be actively recalled.

Freud believed Repression was a Defense Mechanism Freud argued:  individuals often “forgot” traumatic incidents to protect their self concepts and to minimize external anxiety.  “Forgotten” incidents are banished the “unconscious.”  With proper therapy, patience, and effort, these memories can be retrieved The incidents may cause you to have unexplained phobias or problems, that won’t be helped until you uncover the incident

Controversy of Repressed Memories Although there have been documented cases of forgotten trauma, many psychologists argued that some repressed memories may have been constructed by therapists. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation: argues it is possible for individuals relationships to center around a false belief. Some psychologists have argued against the very existence of repressed memories since most memories that take place during stressful events are remembered more vividly.

Elizabeth Loftus: Opponent of Freud Disagrees that memories are remembered during therapy but rather the action of reconstruction of memories Reconstruction: Retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to complete a picture from incomplete stored information Confabulation: Process of combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are trying to remember  Questioning and other confusing inconsistencies during eyewitness testimonies lead to confabulation Misinformation effect: Incorporation of misleading information into memories of a given event Misattribution error (source amnesia): Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval which results in confusing where we attained the information from.

Interference Interference: Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information  Proactive(forward acting) Interference: disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information (old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories)  Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference: disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information (new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories) Tip of the Tongue phenomenon: when we are certain we know something yet we are unable to recall it.  Relates to retrieval failure, usually priming or external cues will help you recall the information you are looking for.

Videos for your viewing pleasure The Memoriad! Clive Wearing:  Gabby (The Girl Who Doesn’t Feel Pain)  (20/20)   (Where is she now?)