A craftsman who wishes to practice his craft well must first sharpen his tools. -- 孔子 工欲善其事，必先利其器。 --Confucius

There is not a cure-all dictionary and it is very likely impossible to produce one, even by adding and improving dictionary examples. (Snell-Hornby 1989:229)

1. Classification of dictionaries Purposes Targeted Readers Language Number General-purpose dictionaries Specialized dictionaries Dictionaries for native speakers Foreign learner ’ s dictionaries Monolingual dictionaries Bilingual and bilingualized Multilingual dictionaries

1. Classification of dictionaries 1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers 1.2 Specialized dictionaries 1.3 English dictionaries for foreign learners 1.4 Bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries

1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers Characteristics Provide relatively full information about each headword. Contain a wide range of words in the language.

1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers Types: Big unabridged dictionaries Pocket dictionaries Desk dictionaries Free online dictionaries

Big Dictionaries 1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers The Oxford English Dictionary （ OED ） 牛津英语词典 The biggest dictionary with 20 volumes, 21,728 pages and 500,000 entries. 照片

Pocket Dictionaries 1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers 照片 The Little Oxford Dictionary (LOD) 牛津英语小词典 51,000 entries

Desk Dictionaries 1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers The Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD9) 牛津简明英语词典（第 9 版） 125, ,000 entry words and phrases

1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers Merriam-Webster ’ s Collegiate Dictionary 梅 - 韦氏大学英语词典 Webster ’ s New World College Dictionary 韦氏新世界大学英语词典

Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary (10 th Edition) The American Heritage Dictionary (3rd Edition, 1996) Encarta World English Dictionary Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2nd Edition, 2003) Cambridge Dictionary of American English (2000) 1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers Free Online Dictionaries

1.1 General-purpose English dictionaries for native speakers Big unabridged dictionaries are too expensive and contain too much information for ordinary learners. Pocket dictionaries usually don’t provide examples and are targeted at school children. Desk dictionaries are of greater appeal to the general public.

1.2 Specialized dictionaries Contains only a certain variety of words, for example, technical terms, abbreviations, dialect words, slang, idioms, place names, or personal names. Types Only provides information about a certain aspect of the headword, for example, its pronunciation, etymology synonyms, or collocations.

1.2 Specialized dictionaries Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English 牛津英语学生搭配词典

贫穷 大小 Big&small What’s the difference between a native language dictionary and a learner’s dictionary? 1.3 English dictionaries for foreign learners

n. 1 a an umbelliferous plant, Daucus carota, with a tapering orange- coloured root. b this root as a vegetable. --The Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD9) noun 1 [U, C] a long pointed orange root vegetable. --Oxford Advanced Learner ’ s Dictionary (OALD6) Example Learner ’ s dictionaryNative language dictionary

1.3 English dictionaries for foreign learners About learner ’ s dictionaries To make monolingual English dictionaries easily accessible to foreign learners. The first English learner ’ s dictionary The New Method English Dictionary was made by Michael West in Today most learner ’ s dictionaries adopt a controlled defining vocabulary of words.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (6th edition, 2000, OALD6 ) Collins COBUILD English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (3rd edition, 2001, COBUILD3) Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002, MED) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (4th edition, 2003, LDOCE4) Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2nd edition, 2003, CALD2) A list of learner ’ s dictionaries 1.3 English dictionaries for foreign learners

1.3.1 Detailed grammatical information Attention to collocation Rich examples Information about word frequencies Explanatory notes  Please check whether your comments on the dictionary designs from these perspectives. Features of learner ’ s dictionaries 1.3 English dictionaries for foreign learners

1.3.1 Detailed grammatical information Let’s take “suggest” as an example!

1.3.1 Detailed grammatical information suggest [ … ] v.tr. 1 ( often foll. by that + clause ) propose (a theory, plan, or hypothesis ) ( suggested to them that they should wait; suggested a different plan). --The Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD9)

suggest [ … ] verb 1~ sth (to sb) to put forward an idea or a plan for other people to think about SYN PROPOSE : [VN] May I suggest a white wine with this dish, Sir? ◇ A solution immediately suggested itself to me ( = I immediately thought of a solution ). ◇ [V (that)] I suggest (that) we go out to eat. ◇ [V- ing] I suggested going in my car. ◇ [VN that] It has been suggested that bright children take their exams early. ◇ ( BrE also ) It has been suggested that bright children should take their exams early. --Oxford Advanced Learner ’ s Dictionary (OALD6) You cannot ‘ suggest somebody something ’ :Can you suggest me a good dictionary? HELP Detailed grammatical information

1. a noun phrase, 2. a noun phrase plus a prepositional phrase to somebody (not suggest somebody something), 3. a that clause (with that being optional), 4. the –ing form of a verb phrase; 5. and that in a construction like “It has been suggested that...” the word that is obligatory; 6. and that in British English there may be the modal auxiliary should in the verb phrase of the that clause, otherwise the verb is in its base form. Suggest can be followed by Detailed grammatical information

1.3.2 Attention to collocation wind 1 1 [ … ] strong/high winds The forecast is for strong winds and heavy rain. | gale/hurricane force winds [ … ] The light wind ruffled the water. rain 1 1 [ … ] heavy/torrential/pouring rain (=a lot of rain) There will be heavy rain in most parts of the country. | The light rain had stopped. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE4 2003)

have knowledge acquire/gain knowledge (= learn something) technical/scientific knowledge in-depth knowledge detailed knowledge specialist knowledge (= knowledge about a particular subject) first-hand/personal knowledge (knowledge from experiencing something for yourself)... You need specialist knowledge to do this job. | [+ of] His knowledge of ancient civilization is unrivalled. | [+ about] the need to increase knowledge about birth control | Many of the students did not have much knowledge of American history. | salesmen with good technical knowledge of what they are selling... Knowledge (LDOCE4) Attention to collocation

1.3.3 Rich examples LDOCE4 contains the largest number of examples — 155,000 in all. On its CD-ROM there are 80,000 additional examples plus over a million corpus sentences.

1.3.4 Information about word frequencies LDOCE4 marks the first 3000 most frequently used words in speech and writing in the form of S1S2S3W1W2W3

In Macmillan English Dictionary there are also three frequency bands, but they cover about 7,300 words: ★★★ 2300 very high frequency words ★★ 2360 high frequency words ★ 2640 quite high frequency words Information about word frequencies

COBUILD3 distinguishes five frequency bands totaling 14,600 words: ◆◆◆◆◆ 680 words ◆◆◆◆◇ 1040 words ◆◆◆◇◇ 1580 words ◆◆◇◇◇ 3200 words ◆◇◇◇◇ 8100 words Information about word frequencies

3000talk about a wide range of everyday topics and read simplified English books 7000have a basic working knowledge of English as proficient as a good English-major graduate How many English words do you have?

1.3.5 Explanatory notes LDOCE4 WORD CHOICE: call, phone, telephone, ring In spoken English, it is usual to say that you call or phone someone: He calls me almost every day. | Phone me when you get there. In spoken British English, it is also very usual to say that you ring someone: Have you rung Kim yet? It is fairly formal and not very usual in spoken English to say that you telephone someone. [...]

LDOCE4 WORD FOCUS: words meaning CHEAP reasonable not too expensive | economical used about cars, systems, or methods that do not cost a lot of money to use | be good value to be well worth the price you pay | be a bargain to be very cheap Explanatory notes

LDOCE4 GRAMMAR (just) in case in case is followed by the simple present, the simple past, or ‘ should ’ : Write it down in case you forget (NOT in case you will forget). | I had a snack, just in case there was no time (NOT in case there would be no time) to eat later. | Here ’ s a contact number, in case there should (NOT will/would) be a problem. [ … ] Explanatory notes

1.4 Bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries What’s the difference between bilingual dictionaries and bilingualized dictionaries? A bilingual dictionary is one in which the headwords are in one language and the definitions in another language. Bilingualized dictionaries are native language dictionaries with foreign language translation.

1.4 Bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries 《新英汉词典》 (A New English-Chinese Dictionary, 2000) Bilingual dictionaries

《新世纪汉英大词 典》 (A New Century Chinese- English Dictionary, 2003) 1.4 Bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries

Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary 《牛津高阶英汉双解词 典》, Bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries Bilingualized dictionaries

2.4 Bilingual and bilingualized dictionaries Bilingualized dictionaries 汉英双语《现代汉语词典》

 A bilingual dictionary is a dictionary that is used to translate words or phrases from one language to another.  Bilingual dictionaries are sometimes used to understand texts read, often, in a foreign language.  Bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional, meaning that they list the meanings of words of one language in another, or can be bidirectional, allowing translation to and from both languages. 3.1 What is a bilingual dictionary

 Bidirectional bilingual dictionaries usually consist of two section, each listing words and phrases of one language alphabetically with their translation.  Other features sometimes present in bilingual dictionaries are definitions, lists of phrases, usage and style guides, verb tables and maps.  3.1 What is a bilingual dictionary

 To help readers translate texts from one language into another;  To help users understand foreign-language texts;  3.2 Functions of bilingual dictionaries

 The most difficult aspect of creating a bilingual dictionary is the fact that lexemes or words cover more than one area of meaning, but these multiple meanings don't correspond to a single word in the target language.lexemesmeaning target language  For example, in English, a ticket can get you into the movie theater, or can be given to you by a police officer for exceeding the posted speed limit. In Chinese, these two meanings are not covered by one word as in English.English 3.2 Functions of bilingual dictionaries

 双语词典 ( 编撰 ) 学是研究双语词典 ( 编撰 ) 的科学, 是一门介于语言学、文化人类学、国情学、社 会学、心理学、文艺学、信息论、电子计算科 学等学科之间的综合性科学，或称多边缘交叉 性科学；它与语言学关系尤其密切，段并不隶 属于它，而是隶属于相对独立的辞书学。  --- 《双语词典编撰学刍议》张柏然 4.1 Which subject does a bilingual lexicography belong to