LING 3P95 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

1.Introduction: Discourse and Communication Discourse is used for communication (Schiffrin 1994), which is to transmit messages from one part of a living system to another (Sebeok 1991). Linguistics is part of semiotics, which is the study of signs. DA involves how the sign system works in communication.

1.1 Composites of a sign (1) (1)a.A radiologist spots a silhouette on a chest X-ray photograph of a patient and diagnoses lung cancer. b. b.A meteorologist notes a rise in barometric pressure and delivers the next day's forecast taking that change into account. c. c.A historian takes a look at the handwriting of a former president and hence gains insight into his personality. d.A man finds himself being stared at by a dog, growling, barking, head held high and neck arched, lips contracted vertically and teeth bared, ears erect and turned forward. The man concludes he is in danger of imminent attack and takes evasive action. Sign; Object that the Sign refers to; Interpretant, the human mind to interpret the Sign

Fig. 1.1 The triadic relation between Sign, Object and Interpretant (de Saussure) Interpretant Sign/signifier Object/signified [ d  ]

(2) (2)a. semiotics: study of signs, i.e. how signs function to transmit message (to communicate); b. message: a string of signs transmitted from a source to a destination; c. sign : consists of a signifier, i.e. sign (e.g. sounds); an interpretant, i.e. user (e.g. interpreting mind); and a signified, i.e. referent (meaning assigned by Interpretant);

1.2 Classes of signs Symptom a compulsive, automatic and non-arbitrary sign, with a natural link between signifier and signified; unintentional index; (subjective sign) e.g. cough patient's complaint ( ‘ I have a pain in my chest. ’ ) groaning while pointing cf. objective sign: inflamed throat, wheezing, shadow on X-ray

Icon A sign where the signifier bears some natural likeness to the signified (association by similarity); intentional e.g. images: photos diagrams (relational): tense iconicity metaphors: He's the key to the problem

Index A sign in which the signified is proximate to the signifier, or is a sample/part of it (association by contiguity) e.g. -pointing finger, symtoms of disease (unintentional index), letters attached to a diagram; -logical relations: cause-to-effect ( ‘ because ’ ), spatial/temporal connection ( ‘ when ’ ) -metonymy (part for whole): All hands on deck, the Crown -grammar: dem, rel pron, tenses, poss case, all designating indexical relation between signifier & signified

Symbol Association by convention; arbitrary/unnatural e.g. emblems (the maple leaf) linguistic signs: sound-meaning correspondence Use of symbolic signs distinguishes man from other communicating animates.

Summary Sign Icon Index Symbol (symptom) Communication involves conventional messages (to signify by prior agreement) and natural messages (to signify by non-arbitrariness). While the former are expressed by symbolic signs, the latter tend to be expressed by iconic or indexical signs.

1.3 Indexical expressions (Levinson 1983) Index is a variable and is the most innovative type of sign as proposed by Peirce. Indexicality may be expressed both verbally and non-verbally.

1.3.1 Person deixis encodes P(articipant) roles in speech event (as those discussed in Goffman): e.g. speaker ( ‘ I ’ ), addressee ( ‘ you ’ ), other ( ‘ s/he ’, etc.) other roles: animator, author, principal, audience … (3)a. Parent: (To child) Fasten your seat-belt. [principal; imperative] b. Air hostess: You are to fasten your seat-belts now. [author/spokesperson; inf.]

1.3.1 Place deixis encodes spatial locations relative to P's location in speech event – –proximal (close to speaker):this, here – –non-proximal: (distant from speaker; can be close to addressee):that, there (4) a. The parking lot is 200 yards away. (relative to P's location at time of U) b. He's coming/going. (built-in; moving towards/away from S)

1.3.2 Time deixis encodes temporal points/spans relative to the time of U (coding time) (5) I'll be back in an hour. [anchored to the time of U] Other examples: now, then, soon, recently, yesterday, this year; tense

1.3.4 Discourse/text deixis encodes reference to portions of unfolding discourse in which U is locatedencodes reference to portions of unfolding discourse in which U is located (6)a. I bet you haven't heard this story. (cataphoric) b. That was the funniest story I've ever heard. (anaphoric) but, therefore, to conclude, to the contrary, after all, etc.

1.3.5 Social deixis encodes social distinctions relative to P-roles, esp. social relationship between S & H/other (7)a. May I approach the bench, Your Honour? [addressee honorific] b. His Excellency is expecting you. [referent honorific] Other honorifics: Yes, sir; vu/vous (Fr.), n í /n í n (Ch.), arimasen (Jap.), residence, lady, dine, depart

1.5 Conclusion (9) Deixis is organized ego-centrically: a. the central person is S; b. the central time is the time at which S produces the U; c. the central place is S's location at U time; d. the discourse centre is where S is in producing her U; e. the social centre is S's social status and rank relative to that of addressee or referent. This ego-centricity correlates to indexical signs' nature of association by contiguity.