 Water quantity is typically the focus of water disputes  Treatment can often be done before discharge or before utilization ◦ Creates issues of responsibility  Issue affects both developed and developing countries ◦ Developed countries have more industry which gives more potential for accidental releases ◦ Developing countries often depend more on water sources for survival, making water quality more important. ◦ Developed countries have more regulation and can afford better treatment ◦ e.g. DDT and methyl bromide still used in developing countries

 Point Sources ◦ Pollutant can be traced to source ◦ Persistent vs Spill  Non-point Sources ◦ Pollutant cannot be traced to specific source

 Articles IX-XI deal specifically with pollution  Article IX – formally defines pollution  Article X – States must prevent new sources of pollution and take all reasonable measures to reduce current pollution  Article XI – Responsible state must compensate affected parties

 In 1986, a fire broke out in a chemical warehouse in Switzerland.  Too much water used to fight fire, causing the catch basins around the site to overflow  30 tons of chemicals released into the Rhine River  Spill wiped out Rhine River fish populations  Water treatment plants on river shut down for 18 days

 Sandoz Company was not found criminally liable ◦ One employee was found guilty of violating water protection acts. Paid fine of <$900  Sandoz paid ~$46 million in damages to Switzerland, France, Germany, and Holland  Instituted stricter safety regulations and stopped producing certain chemicals  Spent additional $10 million to set up Rhine Fund to study the rehabilitation of the ecology ◦ One study found that river recovered in three years  High levels of colloidal matter in river dampened the effects

 States had previously negotiated treaties regarding the Rhine River ◦ Berne Convetion (1963) and Rhine Chemical Convention (1976) ◦ No specific punishments spelled out  Other states decided not to hold Switzerland responsible for several reasons ◦ All had worse environmental records with Rhine River ◦ Sandoz Company covered damages ◦ Feared stricter environmental regulations  Negotiations led to Rio Declaration ◦ Primarily covers notification of possibly affected states  Increased public awareness

 Includes Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan  Area has large amounts of oil, mining, and agriculture ◦ Irrigation diverted from Aral Sea  1992 oil spill released 88 million gallons ◦ One of the largest oil spills ever  Uranium mining and processing ◦ Contributes to runoff contamination  Lack of regulation of these hazardous industries

 Countries established the Terrestrial Environmental Monitoring Program in Central Asia (TEM-CA) in 2003  Goal: To find clean reference areas in order to accurately measure pollution  Also found large amounts of contamination ◦ Mostly from mining operations  Program ended in 2010  No follow up so far ◦ Proposed a program to manage mining tailings

CountryPopulation (millions) Culivated Land (ha) Uncultivated (ha) Kenya10.21,470,0003,400,000 Uganda5.61,400,0002,100,000 Tanzania5.21,500,0005,540,000 Rwanda5.9930,0001,130,000 Burundi2.8670,000640,000  Largest lake in the world (by area)  Used for agriculture, drinking water, and fishing  Largest inland fishery  Population increasing  Water level decreasing Statistics for Lake Victoria catchment area

 Raw sewage pumped into lake ◦ Domestic and Industrial  Large amounts of pesticides and herbicide used ◦ No Runoff Control  Water hyacinth choking coastline ◦ Combines with sewage to create eutrophication  Nile Water Agreement restricts projects that can be undertaken ◦ Egypt blocking proposed pipelines for domestic water use

 Submarine was headed for Japan when it was sunk in 1945 by British submarine  Contained 65 tons of elemental mercury for ammunitions  Currently only small amounts are detected in surrounding biota  Norwegian government is handling cleanup

Questions or Comments

 Many of these problems that developing countries are facing, other countries have also faced. How can the developing countries avoid repeating mistakes? Should they be forced to follow rules that other countries did not follow earlier?  Should accidental spills be treated differently than persistent releases? Who is responsible for determining liability? How to balance liability between countries and corporations?  Is an environmental disaster the only way to spur discussion and change in an area?