Developmental Tasks Associated with Toddlerhood

n Age range (18-36 months) n Differentiation of self and object representations n Integration of affectively distinct object representations ( object constancy) n Increased sense of autonomy n Anxiety over regression to symbiotic state n Beginning internalization of parental demands (superego formation) Increased exploration of environment ( ↑locomotion) Increased exploration of environment ( ↑locomotion) n Goal-corrected partnership (Bowlby)

Mahler’s Theory of Separation-Individuation 4 Subphases (overlapping with oral and anal stages)

n Differentiation (“hatching”) and the development of body image (4- 10 months) n Practicing (9-15 months) n Rapprochement (15-24 months) n Consolidation of individuation and beginnings of emotional object constancy (20-36 months)

Consolidation of Individuation/Emotional Object Constancy Subphase

n Internalization of constant, positively cathected, inner image of mother n Object permanence often precedes object constancy (A-B paradigm) n Stable self boundaries are attained n Unification of good and bad object into whole representation that is final achievement in development of mature object relationship ( influence of Klein) n Toddler able to use reliable internal image in mother’s physical absence— temporary separations lengthened and better tolerated n Mahler’s advances in communication (goal-corrected partnership)

n Three examples –First girl could tolerate separation from mother even though she did not know where she was (secure attachment, p.113) –Boy held conflictual, ambiguous inner image of mother, wanting to avoid her (avoidant attachment, p.113) –Second girl could not tolerate even brief separation from mother (resistant attachment, p. 114) n Reunion behaviors of all three toddlers also predicted by attachment theory (p.114)

Prominence of Ambivalence in Rapprochement Subphase

n Need to believe in mother’s omnipotence (wish fulfillment and need gratification) n Need to protect oneself against reengulfment (regression to symbiotic phase) and be separate and omnipotent) n Integration of disparate representations diminishes ambivalence

Lyons-Ruth’s Response to Mahler's Theory

n Normality and deviance not clearly established—ambivalent behaviors considered normal by Mahler during rapprochement are considered deviant by attachment researchers n Attachment research suggests that ambivalence represents infants’ exaggerated attempt to attain feelings of security n Idea of psychopathology as fixation or arrested development is challenged n Different assumptions—individuation vs. attachment security

n Decreased separation distress at separation  healthy self-assertion? –Secure toddlers more distressed than avoidant toddlers –Secure toddlers have more desirable outcomes n Persistence n Compliance n Peer competence n Autonomous problem-solving n Affective sharing n Requests for assistance

n Lyons-Ruth calls for need to understand early interpersonal interactions as well as intrapsychic conflicts and defenses related to aggression and libido –For Mahler lack of separation distress signifies increased differentiation and integration of maternal object representation –For Lyons-Ruth lack of separation distress signifies defense against anxiety aroused by physical absence of mother n Perhaps “normal” ambivalence associated with split representations occurs earlier (e.g., 8-12 months; see Rogers et al., 1993)

Developmental Outcomes of High-Risk Toddlers (Bernstein & Hans)

n Drug exposure will have negative impact on these developmental outcomes n Cumulative social-environmental risks will have greater negative impact than drug exposure per se on outcomes n Poor maternal communication will interact with drug-exposure status (biological vulnerability) to produce poorest outcomes

n Methodology –28 methadone-exposed toddlers and a matched comparison group of 43 toddlers followed longitudinally from pregnancy to 24 months –Mothers administered instruments assessing the following (assessing cumulative risk) n WAIS Full-Scale IQ n Years of Education n SES n Severity of psychological stressors n Level of adaptive functioning n Quality of maternal communication (4,12,24 months) –Infants administered instruments assessing the following:

n Bayley Scales of Infant Development—IBR (Infant Behavior Record) –Attention –Social resiliency –MDI (Mental Development Index) n Quality of infant communication (24 months) n Gender n Findings –No significant differences in outcome between drug- exposed and comparison toddlers –Stress, adaptive functioning, 24-month maternal communication, cumulative risk differed significantly for two groups –Cumulative risk significantly predicted MDI, attention, social resiliency, child communication in methadone group alone

–Cumulative risk significantly predicted only child communication in comparison group alone –Maternal communication at 24 months significantly predicted child communication at 24 months. In both groups—no interaction effect –But interaction effect between drug-exposure status and maternal communication at 4 and 12 months on MDI, attention, and social resiliency assessed at 24 months (evidence for critical period of maternal communication and drug-exposure interaction effects?)

n Limitations –Structure of daily routines not assessed –Communication in home settings not assessed –Relationships with nonmaternal figures not assessed –Level of biological effects of exposure or amount of exposure not assessed