Socialization The process by which children acquire the rules, standards, and values of a culture. In addition it also includes the acquisition of appropriate behaviors Photo copyright © Used with permission.

Traditionally, socialization has been thought of as a process by which rules & values are imposed on an unwilling child by parents & other adults: socialization from the outside. More recently, many developmentalists have argued children naturally take on rules & values: socialization from the inside. Appropriation: Process by which children naturally takes on the rules & values of their culture through participation in relationships with caregivers. Socialization from the Outside and Socialization from the Inside

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Socialization from the Outside Freud believed: The infant is a seething mass of biological drives & impulses. Society ’ s job is to curb the innate impulses and channel them in acceptable directions. If parents block expression of basic drives, the child learns to redirect this energy toward acceptable goals. Sublimation: Freud ’ s term for the redirection of blocked biological drives and impulses into other behavior. Photograph copyright © Used with permission.

The Anal Period Issue of conflict over toilet training Parent must gain compliance from a resistant child. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Socialization from the Outside Social learning theorists have suggested: 1. Children comply with standards to maintain closeness with parents, who are associated with reducing hunger and other basic needs. 2. Acceptable behavior is directly taught by means of selective rewards and punishments. 3. Children learn through imitation and various rewards and punishments that each child observes.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Socialization from the Inside Ainsworth argued: Socialization emanates from inside children. In the natural course of events, children want to comply with parents ’ requests and expectations. This desire stems from our evolution as a group-living species. Clip art copyright © Used with permission.

Erikson: mix of inside and outside Autonomy versus shame and doubt Some resistance is part of establishing autonomy. Balance between constraints and autonomy

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Important Social and Emotional Developments in Toddlerhood Increased independence from parents and increased self-reliance. Increased awareness of the self and other people. Increased sociability and more mature forms of social interaction. A broader range of emotional responses.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Moving Toward Independence Mobile toddlers readily separate from their caregivers to play and explore. The infant's need for physical contact with the caregiver is increasingly replaced by the toddler's reliance on psychological contact -- exchanges of words, smiles, and looks. Infant learns to integrate various capabilities in new and purposeful ways. Executive competence: The child ’ s feeling he or she is an autonomous force in the world, able to influence the outcome of events.

Symbolic Skills and Independence Ability to represent caregivers in their absence and to remember that they have regularly departed and returned in the past, provides the basis for tolerating separation. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Awareness of Self Toddlers become aware that their own behaviors and intentions are distinct from those of others. By 20 months they show self- recognition in the rouge dot/mirror test). Use of "I" in their heightened awareness of their own intentionality and direction of actions.

The rouge/spot test Technique developed with Chimpanzees by Gordon Gallup Appears at about 1 yr. Why do humans develop more slowly than chimpanzees? Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Understanding of Others Toddlers show increased awareness and understanding of others in many ways: Try to get others to attend to an object. Show more emotion to others. Show some capacity to respond to desires and intentions of another person. Social referencing: Use of cues from another person to interpret situations and guide behavior.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Growth of Sociability Toddlers become both more social and more competent in their interactions with adults and with other children. Greater capacity to observe and interpret other people ’ s actions, to imitate others, and to maintain sequences of social action.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sharing Experiences Toddlers share experiences through: Persistently pointing at things Talking about them Bringing things to others Affective sharing Affective sharing: The toddler ’ s sharing of positive emotions with the caregiver. Clip art copyright © Used with permission.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Interactions Between Toddlers Interactions with other children become increasingly prevalent during the toddler period. Between 15 to 24 months, children develop the ability to behave in a complementary manner with a peer. Social pretend play at age 3: object-centered play imitation social pretend play (acting out interrelated roles)

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Beginnings of Self-Control and Self-Regulation Internalization: Incorporating the parent ’ s standards of behavior into the self. Committed compliance: Children ’ s enthusiastic compliance with parents ’ directives.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Emotional Changes Feelings, Social Sensitivity, and the Beginnings of Morality Guided by primitive, undifferentiated emotional reactions. Toddlers become increasingly aware of and responsive to negative emotional signals from others, an early sign of empathy. Toddlers display deviation anxiety when they do or are about to do something forbidden. Show spontaneous self-corrections.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Emotional Changes Changing Emotions and New Emotions "Fundamental" emotions from infancy undergo important changes and they can withstand higher levels of emotional arousal. Become increasingly able to differentiate self from others, allowing for new ways to express both anger and joy to caretakers. "Secondary," self-conscious emotions, requiring some objective sense of self, emerge: Shame: The self feels exposed, vulnerable, and bad. Positive self-evaluation: The forerunner of pride.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Parents ’ Tasks During the toddler period, parents face two major tasks: to support the child ’ s exploration of the world to set appropriate limits for the child Photo copyright © Used with permission.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Scaffolding: Parents support the child in new tasks by offering developmentally appropriate guidance, hints, and advice.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Guided self-regulation: The ability of toddlers to regulate their own behavior with guidance from caregivers. Parents ’ support of toddlers ’ exploration and problem solving can also be regarded as a process of guided self- regulation.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Changes in Caregiving During the Toddler Period In Western industrialized societies, fathers become increasingly involved with their children during the toddler period. Fathers' behavior during interaction with toddlers often differs from that of mothers and may play an important role in promoting toddlers' growing independence.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The self-awareness that emerges in toddlerhood includes individual expectations about the self that influence the child's responses to the environment. Patterns of adaptation: Individual styles of responding to others and to the environment that form the roots of personality.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Becoming a Separate Person Separation-individual process: Mahler ’ s term for the child ’ s psychological separation from the caregiver and growing awareness of being an individual.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. In Erikson's theory, the defining issue for the toddler period is autonomy versus shame and doubt. Basic trust, the toddler's confidence that the parent-child relationship is secure, supports the development of autonomy and the separation- individuation process. Photo copyright © Used with permission.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Influence of Parent-Child Relationships The Attachment History Clear links exist between quality of infant- caregiver attachment and toddlers' later functioning. Toddlers with a history of secure attachment show greater effectiveness at problem-solving. Toddlers with a history of anxious attachment have difficulties with problem-solving tasks.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Ongoing Parental Support Parental support and stimulation during the toddler period promote positive functioning. Caregivers of anxious-resistant children failure to provide clear guidelines. Caregivers whose toddlers were securely attached as infants tend to be clear in the help they give their children.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Active Role of the Child More clearly than in infancy, the toddler ’ s own characteristics play a role in development. Inborn differences in temperament are critical. Dimensions like intensity of response become more stable and consistent. Inhibited toddlers may have difficulty coping with new challenges. Oppositional toddlers may not be responsive to gentle treatment.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Active Role of the Child Situational compliance: Children ’ s unwilling compliance with parents ’ directives due to fear or parents ’ control of the situation.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Individual Adaptations and the Broader Developmental Context Factors influencing development: parents others in the family people outside the family institutions stress

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Problems Related to Child Maltreatment Physical neglect Failure to meet a child ’ s basic needs for food, warmth, cleanliness, and medical attention. Physical abuseDeliberately causing a child ’ s physical injury. Emotional availability Chronic lack of parental involvement and emotional responsiveness.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Searching for Causes of Maltreatment Maltreatment is associated with parents who are: poor young lacking education unprepared for raising a child But it is certainly not confined to people with these characteristics. It crosses all ethnic, social class, and religious lines.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Characteristics of Child & Parent There is scant evidence that inherent characteristics of children are major causes of child abuse. There is no single personality trait that all abusive parents share. New mothers who become abusers differ from nonabusers in two ways: 1. Less able to cope with ambivalence and stress. 2. Had less understanding of what is involved in caring for a baby.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Characteristics of Child & Parent A study found 3 key factors in women who overcame their history of abuse: 1. Many formed a stable, supportive relationship with some other adult in childhood. 2. Many underwent extensive psychotherapy. 3. All were currently involved in a stable partnership.

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Factors That Increase Risk of Abuse Long-term vulnerability factors Poverty & ongoing stress Parental history of abuse Lack of understanding child as a complex individual Current challenges Relationship instability Violence, alcoholism, or drug abuse in the home Lack of social support Job loss or other acute stressors

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Factors That Decrease Risk of Abuse Long-term protective factors Nurturant care by someone in childhood Good relationship with spouse Awareness of one ’ s own inner needs Short-term buffers Reduction in stress Separation from abusive partner Child entry into school Crisis counseling

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Importance of the Early Years for Social, Emotional, and Neurological Development During the toddler period, these emerge: primitive sense of self foundations of self-esteem patterns of emotional expression emotional regulation perhaps the roots of morality