Episodic Memory Life events are stories about yourself. That is, they are structured in memory in the same manner as all stories. Memory for events in your own life are also called autobiographical memory.

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory

What day is it today? What day was it yesterday? What day will it be tomorrow? Noon

Noon versus Morning Noon Morning

Noon versus Morning versus Evening Noon Morning Evening

Orienting to Time and Place Cues are determined by a person’s current plans and expectations The set of cues are continually being updated. This keeps us oriented to time and place

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Role of Post-Event Information Effect of intentions on event memory Effect of questioning on confidence and accuracy Relationship between accuracy and confidence in event memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory

Memory for Facts versus Memory for Events Task Read a story and recall it some time later Memory Group asked to recall story Interactive Group asked to think about and react to story After they have read the story subjects told either consistent (+), inconsistent (-), or no (0) information with respect to the story Number of Subjects Producing Recall Errors (Out of 20) 2 Days3 weeks6 weeks Group Mem Inter

Sad Ending-Married Comment Sad Ending Margie was horrified. She had always wanted to be a mother and had her heart set on having many children. They argued bitterly over what had become a very serious problem for them. A long discussion of the status of their relationship followed. Recall They separated but realized after discussing the matter that their love mattered more. The discussed it and decided they could agree on a compromise: adoption.

Happy Ending-Not Married Comment Happy Ending Margie was elated. Because she wanted to have a career she had also felt that she didn’t want to have children. They rejoiced in the dissolution of what would have been a very serious problem for them. Along discussion of the status of their relationship followed. Recall There was a hassle with one or the other’s parents. They disagreed about having children.

Conclusion It is possible to remember a story accurately over a long retention interval. However, normal autobiographical memory is subject to constant revision. Memories of specific episodes may change over time as the result of post-event information

Intentions As Recall Cues Marcia Johnson: Found that it is more difficult to distinguish between: Saying something vs. thinking about saying it. Than: Saying something vs. hearing it. This and other studies by Johnson support the important role of intentions and action in organizing memory.

The Effect of Post-Event Questioning on Confidence and Accuracy Children are especially susceptible to post- event information; the response to a repeated yes/no question will change Loftus and Pickerel (1995). Even eye-witness testimony may be influenced by post-event information Successive recall attempts under hypnosis increases confidence must more than accuracy

Memories Disputed Between Twins (Sheen, Kemp, & Rubin, 2001) Age at Test Age at Event Cue WordDescription of Memory 2111FairWho came in 12 th in international cross country race 2114RestaurantWho went for lunch with their mum and had a worm in her meal 2112BoatWho was in boat with father when they saw a tiger shark

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention (of School Years) Personal Information Academic Information Autobiographical Memory

Very Long Retention Intervals

Very Long Term Retention of Personal Information

Very Long-Term Retention of Academic Information

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory

Constructing Autobiographical Function Use cue word method to probe memory. Record the age at which each event occurred.

Autobiographical Retention

Autobiographical Memory A retention function for old memories has three main features: Recency: Older memories are less likely to be recalled than more recent ones A reminiscence bump consisting of a surprisingly large number of memories coming from ages 10-30, particularly between 15 and 25 Childhood amnesia for the first five years of life

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory Early childhood amnesia

Early Childhood Amnesia Pillemer, Picarello, and Pruett (1994): Memory for an emergency school evacuation. 3 yr-olds vs. 4 yr-olds. Two weeks after the event: Same level of memory for event. Seven years later, forced-choice recognition test: 3 yr-olds (now 10): No recognition. 4 yr-olds (now 11): 86% correct.

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory Early childhood amnesia Reminiscence bump

Reminiscence Bump A total of 93% of vivid life memories are either unique events or first-time experiences Hence novel and emotional experiences When alumni were asked to recall 4 memories from their first year of college more than 20 years previously, 41% of the memories came from September

The Effect of Novelty and Emotion on Retention Novel events attract more rehearsals, which results in longer retention Von Restorff Effect Primacy Effect Emotional events are specially encoded so that they are difficult to forget Cahill & McGaugh

Episodic Memory Updating Memory Accuracy and Confidence in Event Memory Long-term Retention Autobiographical Memory Early childhood amnesia Reminiscence bump Effect of novelty and emotion on accuracy and confidence

Flashbulb Memories Vivid memories for unexpected emotional events, e. g., Kennedy assassination; Challenger explosion. Despite the vividness of such memories they may be highly inaccurate. So confidence is not highly correlated with accuracy

Flashbulb Memories Studies Neisser and Harsch (1992): Challenger explosion. 40% of the memories changed after 2.5 years. Schmolck, Buffalo, and Squire (2000): O.J. Simpson verdict. 42% of memories distorted after 2.5 years. 61% of distorted reports were remembered with high degree of confidence.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Vivid memories of unexpected, tragic, hence highly emotional events may disrupt attention to current events. Memories can not be easily forgotten or removed from consciousness However, no evidence that memories are more accurately remembered than other memories