Philosophy and Education Chapter Two Philosophy and Education

The Three Branches of Philosophy Metaphysics: What is real? Epistemology: How do we know? Axiology: What is valuable?

Metaphysics: What is Real? What knowledge do students need to know? What subjects shall we teach our students? The question of metaphysics involves the curriculum of the school.

Changes in our metaphysical perspective In traditional societies, religion was the basis of learning. Today learning has become more secular.

Epistemology: How do we know? How do we learn? How shall we teach the subjects that we see as most important?

Changes in our Epistemological Perspective In traditional societies, information was obtained from divine revelation or personal intuition. Today learning involves hard work, reason and scientific experimentation.

Axiology: What Values are Most Important? What values are the most important? How do we teach those values?

Changes in Axiology: Values In traditional societies, values were seen as absolute and unchanging. Today we embrace a more relativistic set of values that reflect different cultures and worldviews.

Axiology: How do we Teach those values? Traditional approaches to teaching required students to memorize lists of values and then recite them to the teacher. Today teachers focus on the understanding of those values.

The Four Modern Western Philosophies Idealism Realism Pragmatism Existentialism

Idealism First articulated by Plato in ancient Greece. Centered on an unchanging set of ideas that form the core of our society.

Idealists Believed… Classics and the study of the ancient languages (Greek and Latin) should form the basis of the curriculum (metaphysics). Students learn best through memorization and recitation (epistemology). Values are absolute and unchanging and best taught through memorization of specific sets of rules or oaths (axiology).

Realism Realism developed in the 1600s and 1700s. This theory examined the seeming paradoxical relationship between religion and science.

Realists Believed Science and mathematics were the most important subjects (metaphysics). An understanding of the natural laws of our world was the appropriate method of instruction (epistemology). Values are absolute and unchanging and best taught through memorization (axiology).

Pragmatism Developed in the 1800s. This theory separated religion from the worldly activities of humankind.

Pragmatists Believed… Students should understand the major problems facing society (metaphysics). The curriculum should move from the abstract to the concrete, from the theoretical to the practical – learning by doing (epistemology). Values are relative and rules are sometimes inadequate in guiding complex decision-making (axiology).

Existentialism Attention is on the individual and the world of individual relationships. This theory represented a change in the philosophical focus from religion to the individual. (We are responsible for our own actions.)

Existentialists Believed… The best way to learn is through personal insight gained through journaling and autobiography (metaphysics). The curriculum should address the questions of human existence, relationships, and an understanding of success and failure (epistemology). Values are not only relative but students also have a role in choosing them and should explore individual choices and options (axiology).

Alternative & Non-Western Philosophies Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Native American Asian African American

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Each of these religions embrace a number of distinctive interpretations and sects. These range from: progressive, inclusive denominations to conservative, fundamentalist divisions cults Progressive divisions are open to diversity and the separation of church and state and embrace a relative understanding of values. More conservative, fundamentalist divisions tend to be less open to diversity of thought, more dogmatic in their understanding of science, and more oriented towards a belief in absolute values.

Native Americans Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions. Some emphasize living in harmony with the land (rather than the Western tradition of development). Others stress cooperation with members of the community (rather than individualism and competition). These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.

Asians Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions. Some embrace the values of harmony within the family and community. Others emphasize respect for elders and authority. Still others place special emphasis on politeness and devotion to tradition. These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.

African Americans African American culture is diverse as a result of historical experience. Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions. Some value introspective thought and strong family relationships as crucial ways of learning and understanding. Art and music provide an important outlet of expression and communication for others. These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.

The Danger of Stereotyping All people belonging to Native American, Asian American, and African American ethnic groups are not the same and cannot be identified by their heritage alone. Sometimes in our attempt to understand cultural differences among people, we begin to think in terms of stereotypes. This is dangerous. This diversity reminds us of the complexities of teaching. Teachers must develop a curriculum that both empowers and takes into account our diverse culture.

Educational Philosophies Educators have developed a number of educational philosophies. Some parallel one of the four modern philosophies. Some borrow ideas from these and other alternative philosophies.

Two Philosophical Schools of Thought Authoritarian Democratic (non-authoritarian)

The Authoritarian School of Education Rooted in Idealism and Realism Derived from writings of John Locke – Blank Slate Stressed the products rather than the process of learning Favored a subject-centered curriculum Embraced convergent thinking (inside the box) Perennialism, Essentialism, Behaviorism and Positivism

Authoritarian School: Perennialism Rooted in ideas of idealism and realism. Has been the cornerstone of education for centuries. Characterized by the “Great Books” curriculum. Favors a standardized curriculum. Prefers the top down “teacher centered,” or subject-centered method.

Authoritarian School: Essentialism Essentialists focus on the development of essential skills for the future – especially the workplace. Emphasizes a core curriculum -- referred to as basic skills. Favors a top down learning environment. Embrace the NCLB and EOGs as central to the learning experience.

Authoritarian School: Behaviorism Rooted in psychology, especially William James, Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Popular as a method of discipline and computer-aided instruction. Students are essentially blank slates and can be “manipulated” through a rewards system to learn. Emphasizes learning the facts as well as convergent thinking.

Authoritarian School: Positivism Derived from the writings of Auguste Comte who argued that reality existed only as observable fact. We can “know” only through direct observation. Prefers a curriculum based primarily on science and math with rigorous assessment of specific knowledge. Favors convergent thinking.

The Democratic School of Education Rooted in Pragmatism and Existentialism Derived from writings of Jean Jacque Rousseau Stressed the Process rather than the Products of Learning Favored an experience-centered or student-centered curriculum Embraced Divergent thinking (outside the box) Progressivism, Humanism, Constructivism, Post-Modernism, Reconstructionism

Democratic School: Progressivism Emerged from the writings of pragmatists Charles Pierce, William James, and John Dewey. Embraced realistic solutions to social problems. Helped students understand their interconnections with members of the community in which they lived. Favored an “open classroom” environment and cooperative learning. Preferred the problem-solving approach that focuses on student interests. Focused on the learner-centered or student-centered curriculum.

Democratic School: Reconstructionism Emerged during the Great Depression and was influenced by the writings of George S. Counts. Challenged teachers to become “transformative intellectuals”. Provide students with a “Critical Pedagogy” (Henry Giroux) to become agents of social change.

Democratic School: Humanism Embodies the ideas of Jean Jacque Rousseau. Seeks to nurture the individual spirit without imposing external ideas on the student. Promotes divergent thinking. Favors the student-centered approach to learning.

Democratic School: Constructivism Focuses on individual development through a nurturing approach to teaching. Provides students with hands-on activities. Favors the understanding of large, complex ideas rather than the mastery of facts. At odds with the current emphasis on “mastery learning” and accountability as envisioned by the NCLB.

Democratic School: Postmodernism Developed during the upheavals of society in the 1960s and 1970s. The goal is to understand power relationships within society. Believes that those in power use the institutions of government, culture and school to maintain their positions within society. Contends that society has marginalized women, workers, people of color as well as cultural minorities.

Postmodernism (Continued) The curriculum should include works of “marginalized” people in literature, history and other subjects. Students will then appreciate the contributions of other members of our diverse society. Favors a student-oriented approach and journal writing.

Axiology and Education Moral Education Character Education

Moral Education Assumes that students are undeveloped Focuses on the Development of moral reasoning Consistent with the Democratic School Embraces Progressivism, Reconstructionism, Humanism and Postmodernism

Character Education Students are blank slates Favors the transmission of “unambiguous moral values” Consistent with the Authoritarian School Embraces Perennialism, Essentialism, Behaviorism and Positivism