Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–18–1 Chapter Eight Motivation and Emotion

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–28–2 Did You Know That… The founding father of American psychology believed there is a human instinct for cleanliness? According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate the event as more enjoyable than you would if the tickets had been easy to come by?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–38–3 Did You Know That… (cont.) A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that stomach contractions signal hunger? The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to the weight of their biological parents than to the weight of the parents who raised them

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–48–4 Did You Know That… (cont.) Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal weight have? Practicing smiling can lift your mood? There is no emotion center in the brain? Responding without thinking can be a lifesaver in some situations?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–58–5 Module 8.1 Motivation: The “Why’s” of Behavior

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–68–6 Module 8.1 Preview Questions What is motivation? What is instinct theory? What is drive theory? How does arousal theory account for differences in motivational states? How does incentive theory differ from drive theory?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–78–7 Module 8.1 Preview Questions (cont.) What is cognitive dissonance theory? What are psychosocial needs? What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–88–8 What Is Motivation? Factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal- directed behaviors. Motives: Needs or wants that drive goal- directed behavior. –Cannot be observed, must be inferred.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–98–9 Biological Sources of Motivation: Instinct Theory Instinctive Behaviors: Fixed, inborn patterns of response that are specific to members of a particular species. Instinct Theory: All behavior is motivated by instinct. Problems with instinct theory: –List of instincts grew too long to be useful. –Instincts label, but don’t explain. –Human behavior is too variable and flexible.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–10 Biological Sources of Motivation: Drive Theory Need: State of deprivation or deficiency. Drive: State of bodily tension. Drive reduction motivates behavior –Based on homeostasis Types of drives: –Primary Drives: Arise from basic biological needs. –Secondary Drives: Learned or acquired through experience.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–11 Biological Sources of Motivation: Arousal Theory Stimulus Motives: Biologically based needs for exploration and activity. Arousal Theory: Organism seeks way to maintain optimal level of arousal. –Sensation-seekers have a high need for arousal. –Optimal levels of arousal vary from time to time.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–12 Figure 8.1: Yerkes-Dodson Law

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–13 Psychological Sources of Motivation: Incentive Theory Incentives: Rewards or other stimuli that motivate us to act. Incentive Value: Strength of “pull” exerted by goal or reward. Incentive values influenced by many factors: –e.g., one’s learning experiences and expectancies. –Also determined in part by cultural influences.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–14 Psychological Sources of Motivation: Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance: Unpleasant state of tension when attitude and behavior are inconsistent. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: People are motivated to reduce dissonance by making behaviors and attitudes compatible. Effort Justification: Tendency to justify the effort expended in attaining difficult goals.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–15 Figure 8.2: Ways of Reducing Cognitive Dissonance

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–16 Psychological Sources of Motivation: Psychosocial Needs Need for social relationships or need for affiliation. Need for achievement –Extrinsic Motivation: Desire for external rewards. Driven by performance goals. –Intrinsic Motivation: Desire for internal gratification. Driven by learning goals. Achievement motivation vs. avoidance motivation

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–17 Figure 8.3: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–18 Module 8.2 Hunger and Eating

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–19 Module 8.2 Preview Questions How are hunger and appetite regulated? What causes obesity? What is anorexia nervosa? What is bulimia nervosa? What are the causes of eating disorders?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–20 Figure 8.4: Classic Experiment on Stomach Contractions and Hunger

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–21 Figure 8.5: Parts of the Hypothalamus Involved in Hunger and Eating

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–22 Brain Chemicals and Hunger Neuropeptide Y: Stimulates appetite and eating. Leptin: Curbs appetite and eating. Dopamine & Endorphins: Responsible for feelings of pleasure associated with eating? Serotonin: Responsible for feelings of satiety?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–23 Obesity A state of excess body fat. Common and increasing in frequency –About 60% of Americans are overweight –About 26% of Americans are obese A major health risk Measured by body mass index (BMI) –Height and weight taken into account

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–24 Causes of Obesity Behavioral patterns –Consuming too many calories –Insufficient exercise Hereditary and biological factors –Slower metabolism –Set Point Theory: Brain regulates body weight around predetermined set point. –Number of fat cells Environmental factors Emotional states

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–25 Table 8.1: Suggestions for Maintaining a Healthy Weight Limit fat intake. Control portion size. Slow down the pace of eating. Beware of hidden calories. Make physical activity a part of your lifestyle.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–26 Losing Weight Consume fewer calories than expended One pound = 3,500 calories Balance eating and exercise Problem with “quickie” diets –Tend to be temporary weight loss only –Drugs may have serious side effects

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–27 Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa –Self starvation, dangerously low body weight –Medical dangers –Typically young women Bulimia nervosa –Binge eating followed by purging –Typically maintains normal body weight –Medical complications

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–28 Causes of Eating Disorders Cultural factors –Pressure for unrealistic standards of thinness –Dieting as a normative eating pattern

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–29 Figure 8.7: The Thinning of the Ideal Feminine Figure Source: Data based on Rubinstein, S., & Caballero, B. (2000). Is Miss America an undernourished role model? Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 1569.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–30 Figure 8.8: Gender Differences in Obesity Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (1993, March) Data fact sheet: Obesity and Cardiovascular disease. Bethesda, MD: Author.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–31 Causes of Eating Disorders Psychological factors –Issues of control and perfectionism –History of abuse or family conflict Biological factors –Disturbances in brain mechanisms controlling hunger and satiety –Irregular serotonin activity

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–32 Module 8.3 Emotions

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–33 Module 8.3 Preview Questions What are the three components of emotions? Are facial expressions of emotion universal? What role do brain structures play in emotions? What are the major theories of emotion? What are the three components of love in Sternberg’s model of love? What is the polygraph?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–34 What Are Emotions? Feeling states that have three components: –Bodily arousal –Cognition –Expressed behavior

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–35 Figure 8.9: Cross-Species Similarity in Facial Expression

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–36 Six Basic Emotional Expressions Anger Fear Disgust Sadness Happiness Surprise

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–37 Figure 8.10: Plutchik’s Color Wheel of Emotions

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–38 What Emotion Is This Person Portraying? Disgust Sadness Happiness Anger

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–39 What Emotion Is This Person Portraying? Disgust Sadness Happiness Anger

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–40 What Emotion Is This Person Portraying? Disgust Sadness Happiness Anger

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–41 What Emotion Is This Person Portraying? Disgust Sadness Happiness Anger

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–42 Cultural Differences in Emotions Cultural variation in how emotions are experienced and displayed. Display Rules: Cultural customs and norms that regulate the display of emotion. Cultural differences in gestures and bodily movements.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–43 Facial-Feedback Hypothesis Belief that mimicking facial movements will induce an emotion. Duchenne Smile: A genuine smile that involves contraction of a particular set of facial muscles.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–44 Where Do Emotions Reside? Autonomic nervous system Limbic system –Amygdala: Evaluates whether stimuli is a threat. –Hypothalamus: Triggers release of hormones. –Hippocampus: Processes information about context emotional response occurred. Cerebral cortex –Possible hemispheric differences in processing of emotions.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–45 Theories of Emotion: James-Lange Theory Bodily reactions precede emotions. Emotions occur after sensing a particular pattern of bodily arousal. Example: feel afraid because of trembling, pounding heart, rapid breathing

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–46 Theories of Emotion: Cannon-Bard Theory Subjective experience and bodily reactions occur simultaneously. Example: experience fear and trembling, pounding heart at the same time

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–47 Theories of Emotion: Schacter’s Two-Factor Model Emotional experiences depend on: –State of general arousal and –Cognitive interpretation (labeling) of the causes of arousal. Doesn’t account for distinctive physiological features of different emotions.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–48 Theories of Emotion: Dual-Pathway Model of Fear Two brain pathways to process fear messages. Thalamus to cerebral cortex pathway –Careful processing of information Pathway direct to amygdala –Allows faster response to danger cues

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–49 Figure 8.12: LeDoux’s Dual- Pathway Model of Fear Source: Adapted from LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Touchstone.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–50 Figure 8.13: Theoretical Models of Fear

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–51 Love: The Deepest Emotion Love is considered to be both a motive and an emotion. Romantic love idealized in Western culture. –But not limited to Western culture.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–52 Figure 8.14: Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–53

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–54 Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence Knowing your emotions Managing your emotions Motivating yourself Recognizing emotions in others Handling relationships

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–55 The Polygraph Device used to detect whether people are lying. Measures physiological arousal thought to correspond to lying. –Electrical reactivity of skin –Respiration –Heart rate Criticized because of reliability problems.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–56 Module 8.4 Application: Managing Anger

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–57 Module 8.4 Preview Question What can you do to control your anger?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–58 Cognitive Theory on Managing Anger Situations do not cause anger. Anger is caused by a person’s reaction to a situation. –Angry thoughts –Anger-inducing self-statements How can control anger? –Identify and correct thoughts and statements

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–59 Suggestions for Anger Management Become aware of your emotional reactions in anger-provoking situations. Review the evidence. Practice more adaptive thinking. Engage in competing responses. Don’t get steamed.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–60 Suggestions for Anger Management (cont.) Oppose anger with empathy. Congratulate yourself for responding assertively rather than aggressively. Scale back your expectations of others. Modulate verbal responses. Learn to express positive feelings.