Introduction to Motivation Instinct Theory Drive-Reduction Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives

Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down. AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren Aron Ralston Psychology 7e in Modules

Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed action patterns throughout species and unlearned (Tinbergen, 1951). OBJECTIVE 34-2| Discuss the similarities and differences between instinct theory and evolutionary perspective. Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc. © Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile Where the woman can build different kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest. Psychology 7e in Modules

Drive-Reduction Theory When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by drive-reduction theory. Physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951). OBJECTIVE 34-3| Explain how drive-reduction theory views human motivation. Psychology 7e in Modules

Drive Reduction Physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis – maintenance of steady internal state, e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature. Clark Hull – relatively ignored theory now, but important in establishing the precedent for this field. In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological needs. We get a drink when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. We turn up the thermostat when we are cold. He suggested that humans and animals will then repeat any behavior that reduces these drives. Drive Reduction Food Empty Stomach (Food Deprived) Stomach Full Organism Psychology 7e in Modules

Incentive Theory Where our needs (drives) push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels strong hunger drive. Incentives can also be negative, we may behave in a certain way in order to avoid an unpleasant outcome Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic motivation You should see the connection between this theory and Behaviorist principles of learning (conditioning, Law of Effect, and the Premack Principle) Psychology 7e in Modules

Cognitive Theory Motivation results from individuals attempting to maintain order or balance and an understanding of the world. Believes that individual behavior is influenced by the way people perceive themselves and their environment. People seek to maintain order and understanding. Students are motivated to engage in learning tasks to the extent that they expect to succeed and the degree to which they value the achievement of the task.

Optimum levels of Arousal Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal We each have our own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to remain at a comfortable level. Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level of arousal, and the eventual outcome For easy tasks=higher levels of arousal For difficult tasks= moderate levels work best OBJECTIVE 34-4| Discuss the contribution of arousal theory to the study of motivation. Psychology 7e in Modules

“The Zone”

Hierarchy of Motives Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested some needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst and hunger come before psychological needs like achievement, self-esteem and need for recognition. OBJECTIVE 34-5| Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (1908-1970) Psychology 7e in Modules

Hierarchy of Needs Psychological Needs Physical Needs

Hunger Physiology of hunger Parts of the hypothalamus Set Point theory Eating Disorders

Hunger When do we eat? When we are hungry. When are we hungry? When there is no food in our stomach. How do we know when our stomach is empty? Stomach growls. Also called hunger pangs.

The Physiology of Hunger Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger. OBJECTIVE 35-1| Describe the physiological determinants of hunger. Psychology 7e in Modules

Glucose: C6H12O6 Glucose level in the blood is maintained. Insulin decreases glucose in blood making us feel hungry. Glucose Molecule

Glucose & Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, intestines, they send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Rat Hypothalamus

Hypothalamic Centers Lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger (stimulation). Destroy it and the animal has no interest in eating. Reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in LH which leads to ravenous eating in rats.

Hypothalamic Centers Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy it and the animal eats excessively.

Hypothalamus & Hormones Tissue Response Orexin increase Hypothalamus Increases hunger Ghrelin increase Stomach Insulin increase Pancreas Leptin increase Fat cells Decreases hunger PPY increase Digestive tract Hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger.

Set-Point Theory Manipulating lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.” If weight is lost – food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is gained – the opposite takes place.

The Psychology of Hunger Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently, if given food (Rozin et al., 1998). On the other hand, Alzheimer’s patients may forget to eat. OBJECTIVE 35-2| Discuss psychological and cultural influences on hunger. Psychology 7e in Modules

Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by a normal-weight person (usually adolescent women) losing weight continuously and yet feeling overweight. OBJECTIVE 35-3| Explain how the eating disorders anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiologically motivated behaviors. Reprinted by permission of The New England Journal of Medicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617. Lisa O’Connor/ Zuma/ Corbis Psychology 7e in Modules

Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Obesity A disorder characterized by excessive overweight. Obesity increases risk and health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes hypertension, arthritis, and back problems. http://www.cyberdiet.com

Summary

Motivation at Work The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is filled by love and work. -Motivation at work and school OBJECTIVE 37-1| Discuss the importance of flow, and identify the two subfields of industrial-organizational psychology. Psychology 7e in Modules

Attitudes Towards Work People have different attitudes towards work. Some take it as a: Job: Necessary way to make money. Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another. Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity.

Flow & Rewards Flow is experience between no work and a lot of work. Flow marks immersion into one’s work. People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards (money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic rewards.

In industrialized countries work and satisfaction go hand-in-hand.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Applies psychological principles to workplace. Personnel Psychology: Principles of selecting and evaluating workers. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

Harnessing Strengths Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching them to work is the first step toward workplace effectiveness. Task leadership (best for reaching specific goal) vs. social leadership (best for morale) Psychology 7e in Modules

Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement Achievement motivation is defined as desire for significant accomplishment. OBJECTIVE 37-3| Define achievement motivation, and explain why organizations would employ an I/O psychologist to help motivate employees and foster employee satisfaction. Ken Heyman/ Woodfin Camp & Associates Skinner devised a daily discipline schedule which led him to become 20th century most influential psychologist. Psychology 7e in Modules

Satisfaction & Engagement Harter et al., (2002) observed that employee engagement meant that the worker knows: What is expected of him. Feels the need to work. Feels fulfilled at work. Gets opportunities to do the best. Thinks himself to be a part of something significant. Has opportunities to learn and develop. Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/ AP/ Wide World Photos Engaged workers are more productive than non-engaged at different stores of the same chain.

AP Info Drive-reduction theory (give an example) Which part of the hypothalamus does what? Know your hormones (where does the signal come from…before that…?)

More AP info… Maslow-hierarchy of needs Drive-reduction theory of motivation Instinct theory LH starts feeding, VMH stops feeding Feel good-do good phenomenon Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation, remember the overjustification effect?

Introduction to Emotion James Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory Schacter-Singer Theory (2 factor) Autonomic Nervous System

Emotions are our body’s adaptive response. Theories of Emotion Emotions are our body’s adaptive response. Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and 3) conscious experience. OBJECTIVE 38-1| Identify three components of emotions, and contrast James-Lange, Canon-Bard and two factor theories of emotion. Psychology 7e in Modules

Controversy Does physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience? Does cognition (thinking) precede emotion (feeling)? Psychology 7e in Modules

(We react to the changes in our body that we feel) James-Lange Theory William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense view. James-Lange theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience. (We react to the changes in our body that we feel)

Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned James-Lange theory and proposed emotion-triggering stimulus and body's arousal take place simultaneously. 1) Cannon suggested that body’s responses were not distinct enough to evoke different emotions. 2) Physiological responses seemed too slow to trigger sudden emotions. Psychology 7e in Modules

Two-Factor Theory Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggested that our physiology and our cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label.

Embodied Emotion We know that emotions involve bodily response. Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach when fear arises) but others are more difficult discern (neurons activated in the brain).

Emotions and Autonomic Nervous System During an emotional experience our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body and arouses us. OBJECTIVE 38-2| Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system during emotional arousal. Psychology 7e in Modules

Arousal and Performance (remember Yerkes-Dodson??) Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, however optimal performance varies with task difficulty. OBJECTIVE 38-3| Discuss the relationship between arousal and performance. Psychology 7e in Modules

Physiological Similarities Physiological responses are pretty much similar across the emotions of fear, anger, love and boredom. This can be an issue when you study stress, which in our lives has physical consequences to psychological triggers. Your body only has one response to stress and it involves activating your sympathetic nervous system. This is not always healthy OBJECTIVE 38-4| Name three emotions that involve similar physiological arousal. Excitement and fear involve similar physiological arousal. Psychology 7e in Modules

Cognition and Emotion What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)? Can we change our emotions by changing our thinking?

Cognition Can Define Emotion Arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event. OBJECTIVE 38-6| Explain how spillover effect influences our experience of emotion. AP Photo/ Nati Harnik Reuters/ Corbis Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting. Psychology 7e in Modules

Two Routes to Emotion Zajonc and LeDoux (1984) emphasize some emotions are immediate without conscious appraisal. Lazarus, Schachter and Singer (1998) emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions.

Nonverbal Communication Most of us are good at deciphering emotions thorough non-verbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al. 2000). OBJECTIVE 39-1| Describe some of the factors that affect our ability to decipher non-verbal cues. Psychology 7e in Modules

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions then men. When shown sad, happy and scary film clips women expressed emotions more than men. OBJECTIVE 39-2| Describe some gender differences in perceiving and communicating emotions. Psychology 7e in Modules

Culture and Emotional Expression When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did pretty well at recognizing them (Ekman & Matsumoto, 1989). OBJECTIVE 39-4| Discuss the culture-specific and culturally universal aspects of emotional expression, and explain how emotional expressions can enhance survival. Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion Psychology 7e in Modules

Emotions are Adaptive Darwin speculated that our ancestors communicated with facial expression in the absence of language. Nonverbal facial expression led to their survival. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Analyzing Emotion Analysis of emotions is carried out on different levels.

Experienced Emotion Fear Anger Adaptation-level phenomenon Relative deprivation

Experienced Emotion Izard (1977) has isolated 10 emotions. And most of them are present in infancy, excluding contempt, shame and guilt. Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow OBJECTIVE 40-1| Name the 10 basic emotions, and describe two dimensions psychologists use to differentiate emotions. Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank Psychology 7e in Modules

People generally divide emotions into Dimensions of Emotion People generally divide emotions into two dimensions

Fear Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep and preoccupy our thinking. But fear can be adaptive – it makes us run away from danger, brings us closer as groups, protects us from injury and harm.

Learning Fear We learn fear in two ways through conditioning and/or through observation. OBJECTIVE 40-2| State two ways we learn our fears. Watson Bandura Psychology 7e in Modules

The Biology of Fear Some fears are easier to learn than others. The amygdala in the brain associates emotions like fear with certain situations and its proximity to the hippocampus allows for the easy encoding of these memories. OBJECTIVE 40-3| Discuss some of the biological components of fear. Psychology 7e in Modules

Causes of Anger People generally get angry with friends and loved ones about misdeeds, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable. People also get angry about foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, aches and pains. Psychology 7e in Modules

Catharsis Hypothesis Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves emotional release or “catharsis.” Some believe that we are drawn to displays of violence (football, etc) because it is cathartic and allows us an outlet for aggression. Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement, is habit forming.

Emotional Ups and Downs Our positive moods rise to a maximum within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less the same over the day. OBJECTIVE 40-6| Discuss some of the daily and longer-term variations in the duration of emotions. Psychology 7e in Modules

Feel-Good, Do-Good phenomenon When we feel happy we are more willing to help others. This is a good example of the “spill over effect”

Happiness & Satisfaction Subjective well-being (happiness + satisfaction) measured in 82 countries show Puerto Rico and Mexico (poorer countries) at the top of the list.

Happiness & Prior Experience Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like sensory adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to new situations until that situation becomes the “norm”. Then people need a new experience. This constantly raises the level for what is considered new and exciting In baseball, the Cardinals are used to being a successful team, and we are used to rooting for a winner. What would happen if they started having really bad seasons? OBJECTIVE 40-8| Contrast the effects on happiness of the adaptation-level and the relative-deprivation principles. Psychology 7e in Modules

Psychology 7e in Modules

Happiness & Others’ Attainments Happiness is not relative to our past but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself with. They realize that they have less of what they believe themselves to be entitled than those around them. Can lead to social movements, deviance, rioting, civil wars, etc

AP Info… Know the theories of how we experience emotion. Which one involves a cognitive label? What role does conditioning play in our emotions? Schemas? Yerkes-Dodson-optimum level of arousal

More AP info… James-Lange (arousal leads to emotion) Cannon-Bard (simultaneous experience) Schacter-Singer (2 factor, cognitive label) Sternberg triangle theory of love (passion-commitment-intimacy)