Behaviourism

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Learning “Process by which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behaviour.” (Woolfolk, et al 2008: 245) “… behaviourists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience. This change in behaviour is always observable …” (Jordan, et al 2008:21) “Behaviourism is a theory of learning focusing on observable behaviours and discounting any mental activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behaviour.” (Pritchard, 2009:6)

Close your eyes and try to create vivid image of the following: The smell of fresh coffee An embarrassing moment at school The taste of chocolate The sight of a needle just before a blood test What did you notice as you formed these images? What were you feeling as you thought about them?

Ivan Pavlov

Early explanations of learning: Contiguity and classical conditioning (From Woolfolk, et al 2008:246) Contiguity – association of two events because of repeated pairing Stimulus – event that activates behaviour Response – observable reaction to a stimulus

Classical conditioning – other key terms Classical conditioning Association of automatic responses with new stimuli Neutral stimulus Stimulus not connected to a response Unconditioned stimulus Stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response Unconditioned response Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response Conditioned stimulus Stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning. Conditioned response Learned response to previously neutral stimulus. Woolfolk, et al (2008:247)

Food Bell Salivation Unconditioned response Conditioned response

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Pavlov in practice (?) Pavlov has shown how he can condition a dog to ‘drool’ to the sound of a bell – but how can this inform your practice? In small groups, identify an example of this in a learning situation – how, as teachers can we use the basic Stimulus- Response Theory? Think of some examples also in everyday situations

Pavlov Classical conditioning B.F. Skinner ( ) Operant conditioning

Classical conditioning is “the automatic conditioning of involuntary responses such as salivation and fear. Clearly, not all human learning is so automatic and unintentional. Most behaviours are not involuntary responses. People act or ‘operate’ on their environment to produce different kinds of consequences.” Woolfolk, et al (2008:249)

B.F. Skinner ( ) Overview Used rats and pigeons for his experiments Skinner Box showed that animals could be trained to carry out increasingly complex tasks Introduced positive and negative reinforcement Positive rewards more effective in encouraging desired behaviour

The Skinner Box

A B C Consequences AntecedentBehaviour

Reinforcement Reinforcement – use of consequences to strengthen behaviour Consequence Effect Behaviour Reinforcer Strengthened or repeated behaviour

Punishment Punishment – process that weakens or suppresses behaviour Consequence Effect Behaviour Punishment Weakened or decreased behaviour

Image: Woolfolk, et al (2008:252)

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After you execute a turn during a skiing lesson, your instructor shouts out, "Great job!" At work, you exceed this month's sales quota so your boss gives you a bonus. For your teaching observation you are awarded a grade 1 The ski instructor offering praise, the employer giving a bonus, and the observer awarding a grade 1 are all examples of positive reinforcers. In each of these situations, the reinforcement is an additional stimulus occurring after the behaviour that increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again in the future. Examples of positive reinforcement

Before going out in the sun, you apply sunscreen to avoid getting sunburned. You clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid getting in a fight with your roommate. You leave the house early to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for class. Sunburn, a fight with your roommate and being late for work are all negative outcomes that were avoided by performing a specific behaviour. By eliminating these undesirable outcomes the preventative behaviours become more likely to occur again in the future. Examples of negative reinforcement

Activity In pairs think of at least 3 examples of operant conditioning in your own teaching Are these examples of positive or negative reinforcement? Consider their success in the classroom 20 mins

Classical conditioning An association is formed between a stimulus and an involuntary response Operant conditioning An association is formed between a stimulus and a voluntary response To summarise …

Later developments in behaviourism Wolfgang Kohler (1925) – apes presented with out-of-reach food appeared to solve problems by sudden insight rather than trial and error. Tolman (1946) – rats could learn, remember and use facts about a maze. Create ‘cognitive map’ to store and access information. Behaviourism dominated psychology until 1960’s. cognitive approaches renew interest in mental processes.

Ralph Tyler (1949) Click on Ralph for further info

Educational implications of behaviourism Bloom’s taxonomy Curriculum planning Models of instruction Learning outcomes Assessment See Jordan, et al (2008) pp 29-33

Critique of behaviourism? Too simplistic Reducing humans behaviour to stimulus – response Learning without understanding Human learning involves thinking, reasoning and social factors Scales, 2012: 60

Behaviourism. Not really concerned with mental processes Cognitivism. Storing, processing, remembering. ‘Cognitive map’ Constructivism. Connecting new knowledge to existing. Making meaning.

References Jordan, A., Carlile, O and Stack, A. (2008) Approaches to Learning Maidenhead: Open University Press Pritchard, A. (2009) Ways of Learning (2 nd Ed.)London: Routledge Scales, P. (2013) Teaching in the Lifelong Learning(2 nd Ed.) Maidenhead: Open University Press Woolfolk, A., Hughes, M. and Walkup, V. (2008) Psychology in Education Harlow: Pearson Education LImited