SPORTS IN SOCIETY: SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES CHAPTER 6 SPORTS AND DEVIANCE: Is it Out of Control? PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Problems Faced When Studying Deviance in Sports Forms and causes of deviance are diverse, and no single theory can explain them. Actions accepted in sports may be deviant in other social situations. Deviance in sports often involves unquestioned acceptance of norms rather than a rejection of norms. Training and performance have become medicalised. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Defining and Studying Deviance in Sports Studying Deviance is challenging – norms take different forms, vary in importance, change over time and social world. Norm – shared expectation. Deviance – ideas, traits, actions perceived to fall outside normal range of acceptance. Formal norms (e.g, official rules) and informal norms (e.g., unwritten understandings) Formal deviance (e.g., violations of official rules) and inform deviance (e.g., violations of unwritten customs). PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Two Approaches to Studying Deviance Absolutist approach – social norms based upon essential principles – unchanging foundation for identifying good/evil, right/wrong. Popular with fans, media, general public. Not useful for sociology other than to explain general responses. Constructionist approach – assumes deviance occurs outside socially determined boundaries of particular social worlds. Norms and deviance are socially constructed. Negotiated boundaries determined by power dynamics. Allows for deviant overconformity and underconformity. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Deviant Underconformity and Overconformity in Sports Deviant underconformity – subnormal ideas, traits, actions that indicate rejection or ignorance of their existence. Linked to anarchy and lawlessness. Deviant overconformity – supranormal ideas, traits, actions – uncritical acceptance of norms. Linked to fascism and blind obedience of charismatic leader. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Deviance may involve underconformity or overconformity Figure 6-2 Deviance may involve underconformity or overconformity PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

The Sport Ethic A set of norms that many people in power and performance sports accept and reaffirm as the dominant criteria for defining what it means, in their social worlds, to be a sports competitor and to successfully claim an identity as a sports competitor. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

The Norms of the Sport Ethic A sports competitor: makes sacrifices for ‘the game’ strives for distinction accepts risks and plays through pain accepts no limits in the pursuit of possibilities. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Why Do Competitors Engage in Deviant Overconformity? Sports are so exhilarating and thrilling that some competitors will do almost anything to continue to participate. Being selected to play sports is more likely when participants overconform to the sport ethic. Exceeding normative limits can create excitement and bonds between participants. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Competitors Most Likely to Overconform to the Sport Ethic Competitors with low self-esteem and strong needs to be accepted by peers in a sport. Competitors who see achievements in sport as their only way to get ahead, make themselves a name, and become important in the world. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Deviant Overconformity and Group Dynamics Following the Norms of the Sport Ethic Special Bonds Among Competitors Hubris PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Underconformity and Overconformity: Is there a Connection? If bonds are powerful to foster overconformity, can they also foster other forms of deviance? If competitors’ actions separate them, do players come to disdain or disrespect rest of community? If competitors develop hubris, might they feel entitled to conclude they are exempt from community standards? If community holds players in awe because of their displays of overconformity, are those people less likely to enforce laws and standards? PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Controlling Deviant Overconformity in Sports Learn to identify the forms and dynamics of overconformity among competitors. Raise critical questions about the meaning, organisation and purpose of sports. Create norms in sports that discourage overconformity to the sport ethic. Help participants to learn to strike a balance between accepting and questioning rules and norms in their sports. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Research on Deviance Among Competitors Deviance on the Field and in the Realm of Sports Cheating, dirty play, fighting, and violence are less common today than in the past. This historical finding contradicts popular perceptions. Many people think deviance is more common today because there are more rules than ever before, and expectations for conformity are greater. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Research on Deviance Among Competitors Deviance off the Field and Away from Sports Competitors do not have higher delinquency rates than those who do not play sports. Data on academic cheating is inconclusive. Competitors have higher rates of alcohol use and binge drinking. Felony rates among adult athletes do not seem to be out of control, but they do constitute a problem (see Ch. 7). PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Performance-Enhancing Substances: Deviant Overconformity in Sports The use of performance-enhancing substances occurs regularly in high-performance sports. Many cases of usage constitute a form of deviant overconformity. Such substances will be used as long as competitors believe they will enhance performance. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Defining and Banning Performance-Enhancing Substances Defining what constitutes a ‘performance-enhancing substance’ is difficult. Defining what is natural or artificial is difficult. Defining what is fair when it comes to the use of science, medicine and technology in sports is difficult. Determining what is dangerous to health is difficult. Studying and testing for substances is constrained by ethical and legal factors. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Why is the Challenge of Substance Control So Great in Sports Today? The high stakes in sports have fuelled research and development of substances. Fascination with the use of technology to push human limits. The rationalisation of the body. Growing emphasis on self-medication. Changing gender relations. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Why is the Challenge of Substance Control So Great in Sports Today Why is the Challenge of Substance Control So Great in Sports Today? (cont.) The organisation of power and performance sports (must win to continue to play). Coaches, sponsors, administrators and fans clearly encourage deviant overconformity. Competitors’ performances are closely monitored within the social structure of elite sports. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Drug Testing as a Deterrent: Arguments in Favour of Testing Testing is needed to protect participants’ health. Testing is needed to guarantee fairness and a level playing field. Testing is a part of normal law enforcement because drug use is illegal in many cases. Testing is needed to anticipate and discourage the use of genetic engineering. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Drug Testing as a Deterrent: Arguments Against Testing Competitors and substance manufacturers can stay one step ahead of the testers. Mandatory testing, testing without cause, and using blood and tissue violates privacy rights. Tests are expensive and drain resources in sports organisations. Tests are ineffective for synthetic versions of naturally produced substances. Drug tests will push more competitors toward genetic engineering. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start Critically examine the hypocrisy in elite sports. Establish rules indicating that risks to health are undesirable and unnecessary in sports. Establish rules stating that injured competitors must be independently certified as ‘well’ before they may play. Educate young competitors to define courage and discipline in ways that promote health. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

Controlling Substance Use: Where to Start (cont.) Establish a code of ethics for sports scientists. Make drug education part of deviance and health education. Create norms regulating use of technology. Critically examine values and norms in sports. Redefine meaning of achievement. Teach competitors to think critically. Provide accurate and current information to parents, coaches and competitors. PPTs to accompany Sports in Society 2e by Coakley, Hallinan and MacDonald © 2011 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd