Any pattern of behaviour in which parent spends time and/or energy to improve the survival, condition and future reproductive success of offspring. Care can be given at any stage: 1.Prenatal (during pregnancy) guarding eggs, building nests, carrying broods, incubating eggs and placental nourishing. 2. Post-natal (after birth) providing food, protecting offspring, teaching offspring. Parental care Adapted from L. Kuun1

Little or no parental care means a low reproductive effort. Reproductive energy put into producing masses of eggs. High mortality rate amongst eggs as well as young. Few individuals survive to reproductive age. Examples: Most fish, amphibians, insects, most reptiles Adapted from L. Kuun Little or no parental care 2

Few eggs or young produced. Low mortality rate amongst eggs or young. High reproductive effort. Reproductive energy goes into parental care after birth (post-natal). Most offspring survive to reproductive age. Examples: Mammals, birds, some reptiles, exceptions amongst fish and Arthropods. Adapted from L. Kuun When parental care is given 3

Left: Midwife toad Right: chicken laying egg, mother feeding young Adapted from L. Kuun4

Ovovivipary type of parental care Left: Male seahorse with young emerging from breeding pouch 5

Adapted from L. Kuun6