Free Electron Laser

FEL A free-electron laser, or FEL, is a laser that shares the same optical properties as conventional lasers such as emitting a beam consisting of coherent electromagnetic radiation which can reach high power, but which uses some very different operating principles to form the beam. Unlike gas, liquid, or solid-state lasers such as diode lasers, in which electrons are excited in bound atomic or molecular states, FELs use a relativistic electron beam as the lasing medium which moves freely through a magnetic structure, hence the term free electron. The free-electron laser has the widest frequency range of any laser type, and can be widely tunable, currently ranging in wavelength from microwaves, through terahertz radiation and infrared, to the visible spectrum, to ultraviolet, to X-rays.

Beam creation

To create an FEL, a beam of electrons is accelerated to almost light speed (technically known as relativistic speed). The beam passes through an FEL oscillator in the form of a periodic, transverse magnetic field, produced by arranging magnets with alternating poles within a laser cavity along the beam path. This array of magnets is sometimes called an undulator, or a "wiggler", because it forces the electrons in the beam to assume a sinusoidal path. The acceleration of the electrons along this path results in the release of a photon (synchrotron radiation). Since the electron motion is in phase with the field of the light already emitted, the fields add together coherently. Whereas conventional undulators would cause the electrons to radiate independently, instabilities in the electron beam resulting from the interactions of the oscillations of electrons in the undulators and the radiation they emit leads to a bunching of the electrons, which continue to radiate in phase with each other. [4] The wavelength of the light emitted can be readily tuned by adjusting the energy of the electron beam or the magnetic field strength of the undulators. [4]

Holografija Holography was discovered in 1947 by Hungarian physicist Dennis Gabor (Hungarian name: Gábor Dénes) (1900–1979), work for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in It was made possible by pioneering work in the field of physics by other scientists like Mieczysław Wolfke who resolved technical issues that previously made advancements impossible. The discovery was an unexpected result of research into improving electron microscopes at the British Thomson-Houston Company in Rugby, England, and the company filed a patent in December 1947 (patent GB685286). The technique as originally invented is still used in electron microscopy, where it is known as electron holography, but holography as a light-optical technique did not really advance until the development of the laser in 1960.Mieczysław Wolfke

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General properties of recording materials for holography MaterialReusableProcessing Type of hologram Max. efficiency Required exposure [mJ/cm²] Resolution limit [mm −1 ] Photographic emulsions NoWet Amplitude6% 0.001–0.11,000–10,000 Phase (bleached) 60% Dichromated gelatin NoWetPhase100%1010,000 PhotoresistsNoWetPhase33%103,000 Photothermo plastics Yes Charge and heat Phase33% –1,200 Photopolyme rs NoPost exposurePhase100%1–1,0002,000–5,000 Photochromic s YesNoneAmplitude2%10–100>5,000 Photorefracti ves YesNonePhase100%0.1–50,0002,000–10,000

Confocal microscopy Confocal microscopy is an optical imaging technique used to increase micrograph contrast and/or to reconstruct three- dimensional images by using a spatial pinhole to eliminate out-of-focus light in specimens that are thicker than the focal plane. This technique has gained popularity in the scientific and industrial communities and typical applications are in life sciences and semiconductor inspection.

What is fluorescence If you shine light on some molecules, you may see light of a different color emitted from those molecules. This is known as fluorescence. The molecules absorb high-energy light (blue, for example). This increases the energy of the molecules, represented as the top black line in the diagram (an "excited" molecule). Some of the energy from the blue photon is lost internally (represented by the red squiggly arrow in the picture). The molecule then emits a photon with less energy, green in this example. Fluorescein is a common dye that acts in exactly this way, emitting green light when hit with blue excitation light. The color of light emitted is material dependent, and likewise the excitation light wavelength depends on the material. (There are other forms of inelastic scattering; fluorescence is particularly strong.)

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