Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life Section 3: Carbon Compounds CCS Biology Mr. Bogusch

The Chemistry of Carbon Organic Chemistry – study of chemistry that contain bonds between carbon atoms Carbon can bond with many elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen to form the molecules of life A wonderful image released by Michael Ströck under the GNU Free Documentation License: The structures of eight allotropes of carbon: a) Diamond b) Graphite c) Lonsdaleite d) C60 (Buckminsterfullerene) e) C540 Fullerene f) C70 Fullerene g) Amorphous carbon h) Single-walled carbon nanotube

The Chemistry of Carbon Characteristics of carbon Carbon has 4 valence electrons – meaning it can make up to 4 covalent bonds with itself or many other elements Carbon can bond with itself in a single, double, or triple covalent bond

The Chemistry of Carbon Macromolecules Macromolecules – “giant molecules” --molecules made from hundreds to thousands of smaller molecules Polymerization – process by which large compounds are formed by joining smaller ones together Monomers – one molecule or “single part” Polymers – many molecules or “many parts”

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Biological Macromolecules Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic Acids Proteins

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates – compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms usually in a ratio of 1:2:1 Living things use carbohydrates as their main sources of energy. Plants, some animals, and other organisms also use carbohydrates for structural purposes. The breakdown of glucose provides immediately energy for cell activities Starches – extra sugar stored as complex carbohydrates

Simples Sugars Carbohydrates Monosaccharides – single sugar molecules Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Carbohydrates Simples Sugars Monosaccharides – single sugar molecules For example: Glucose, fructose (found in fruit), galactose (found in milk) Disaccharide – two monosaccharides (single sugars) joined together For example: Sucrose (disaccharide) if made by joining glucose and fructose.

Simples Sugars

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Carbohydrates Complex Carbohydrates Polysaccharides – large molecules formed from joining monosaccharides Animal Carbohydrates Glycogen - (animal starch) is formed by joining many glucose monosaccharides together Glycogen supplies energy for muscle contraction Plant Carbohydrates Starch – polysaccharide that plants use to store sugar Cellulose – fibrous polysaccharide plants use for strength and rigidity Cellulose is the main component of wood and paper

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Carbohydrates Carbohydrates

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Lipids Lipids Lipids – nonpolar molecules that cannot dissolve in water and made of mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms Lipids can be used to store energy. Some lipids are important parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings. Steroids (which include hormones) are lipids Hormones - chemical messengers

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Lipids

Lipids are made of a glycerol molecule and fatty acid tails Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Lipids Lipids are made of a glycerol molecule and fatty acid tails Saturated fatty acid – the fatty acid tail is completely filled with hydrogen atoms Fats that are solid at room temperature Butter, grease Polyunsaturated fatty acid (unsaturated) – the fatty acid tail has at least ne carbon – carbon double bond Fats that are liquid at room temperature Olive oil, corn oil canola oil, peanut oil

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Lipids

ATP Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acid – macromolecules that contain nucleotides Nucleotides – molecule that has a nitrogenous base, 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. ATP – adenosine triphosphate – chemical energy in organisms ATP Nucleotide

Hereditary information – DNA and RNA Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Nucleic Acids Hereditary information – DNA and RNA Nucleic Acids store and transmit hereditary, or genetic information Ribonucleic Acid – RNA - transfer the instructions to build proteins from the nucleus to ribosomes (where proteins are built) Deoxyribonucleic Acid – DNA - have the instructions to build proteins

Nucleic Acids - DNA

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Nucleic Acids

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Proteins Proteins Protein – macromolecules that are made of chains (polymers) of amino acids Proteins are assembled by RNA from the instructions of DNA Amino acids – compounds with an amino group (NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group (COOH) on the other end. Peptide bonds (covalent bonds) link amino acids together.

Proteins DO EVERTHING!!!! Proteins Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Proteins Proteins DO EVERTHING!!!! Some proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes. Other proteins from important cellular structures, while others transport substances into or out of cells to help fight disease.

Structure and Function Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Proteins Structure and Function There are around 20 different amino acids found in nature Amino acids are diverse macromolecules – some are acidic and some are basic, some are polar and some are nonpolar (meaning some will dissolve in water and some will not)

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things) Proteins

Four Major Groups of Macromolecules (found in living things)

Chapter 2: Science of Biology Section 4: Chemical Reactions and Enzymes

Chemical Reactions Chemical reaction – process that changes, or transforms, one set of chemicals into another Mass and energy are conserved during the reaction The law of conservation of energy states that energy may neither be created nor destroyed.

As it enters the blood, carbon dioxide (CO2) reacts with water to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is highly soluble. This chemical reaction enables the blood to carry carbon dioxide to the lungs. In the lungs, the reaction is reversed and produces carbon dioxide gas, which you exhale.

Chemical Reactions Reactants – elements or compounds that enter the chemical reaction Products – elements or compounds produced by the chemical reaction Chemical reactions involve changes in the chemical bonds that joins atoms in compounds

Chemical Reaction Example

Energy in Reactions Hindenburg Chemical reactions that release energy often occur on their own, or spontaneously. For example: burning of hydrogen gas 2H2 + O2 -- 2H2O Hindenburg

Energy in Reactions Chemical reactions that absorb energy will not occur without a source of energy Activation Energy – energy needed to start a chemical reaction.

Enzymes Catalyst – a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction Enzyme – Proteins that speed up chemical reactions by reducing the activation energy (amount of energy needed to start the chemical reaction) Enzymes are biological catalyst

Enzymes The Enzyme- Substrate Complex Substrate – the substance an enzyme acts on The reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions Active site – the site on the enzyme where that substrate binds onto. Similar to a “lock and key”

Enzymes

Enzymes

Enzymes Control (regulation) of Enzyme Activity Temperature, pH, and other molecules can affect the activity of enzymes For example: Human enzymes work best at a temperature of 37°C (98.6°F). Human enzymes in the stomach work best at a pH of 2