Motivation Motivation - the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met. Biological, Emotional, Cognitive, Social forces Activation Persistence Intensity

Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation Vs. Intrinsic Motivation A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment. Intrinsic A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Interest / enjoyment in task itself

5 Motivational Theories Instinct / Evolutionary Perspective -unlearned Drive Reduction - homeostasis Incentive – reinforcement & punishment Arousal Theory - balance Humanistic: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – psychological needs of those who were psychologically healthy Achievement Motivation – overcome obstacles

Evolutionary (Instinct) Theory inherited patterns of behavior that are unlearned Self preservation Mostly common in species outside of humans Evolutionary programming Fixed action patterns Evolutionary heritage

Evolutionary (Instinct) Theory Strengths: Provides survival value By studying animals, we can understand basic human behaviors Weaknesses: Doesn’t meet the complexity of most human behavior Many behaviors cannot be simplified to this degree described & labeled behavior, did not explain them.

Biological: Drive Reduction Theory Desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs Hunger Exhaustion Drive: aroused state of psychological / physiological tension caused by some need Drives motivate us to do something Need: - a requirement (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism. Thirstiness (physiological need) creates tension state (drive) which motivates you to get water After you drink, the drive is reduced and you are closer to homeostasis

Types of Drive Primary drives - those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst. Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

Homeostasis The goal of our body, according to com psychologist, is to ELMINATE all drives so that we can experience homeostasis A balanced or constant internal state that the body regulates

Biological: Drive Reduction Theory Strengths Useful for explaining biological needs Primary drives satisfied Homeostasis for biological needs Weaknesses Does not account for secondary motives Curiosity Sensation seeking Play Achievement Affiliation Power

Incentive Theory A positive or negative ENVIRONMENTAL (has to be external) stimulus that motivates behavior Apart from the “need” to reduce drives. ‘pull’ of external goals Based on personal & cultural experiences Wants & desires

Incentive Theory Strengths: Weaknesses: Secondary drives satisfied Does not account for primary motives Fails to explain why people do things when not receiving an external incentive

Contrasting Approaches You are hungry… Drive Reduction “Push” 5 Hours since last meal Hunger Internal Incentive “Pull” Ice cream truck Palatability (good tasting) external

Biological: Arousal Theory Based on 2 basic ideas Individuals perform tasks at different levels of arousal Wakefulness / alertness & stress Each individual seeks to find its optimal level of arousal to perform tasks & avoid boredom Boredom vs. overstimulation high levels of optimal arousal = more susceptible to thrill seeking activities low = seek out more relaxing & quiet activities.

Biological: Arousal Theory Strengths: Explains the search for varied & novel activities Risky behavior Adds to the homeostasis idea Weaknesses Not a comprehensive theory

Biological: Optimal Arousal Theory Yerkes-Dodson Principle of Arousal What level of arousal is optimal for most individuals when they are completing DIFFICULT/SKILL BASED TASKS? What level of arousal is optimal for most individuals when they are completing EASY /EFFORT BASED TASKS? States basic/general tasks are completed best with a moderate level of arousal (inverted U graph)

Biological: Zuckerman ~ sensation seeking Sensation seeking scale Some people have an above average need for sensation seeking Thrill & adventure seeking Experience-seeking Disinhibition Boredom susceptibility http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/sensation/index.shtml

Behavioral: Achievement Motivation A desire for significant accomplishments; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard Self-endorsed (personal or cultural expectations) Outperforming, excelling, succeeding, control, high standard People who have LOW achievement motivation prefer very easy or very difficult tasks. People with HIGH achievement motivation prefer moderately difficult tasks.

Behavioral: Achievement Motivation Strengths: High achievement Correlates well with various areas of success Delay gratification Original thinking Seek expert advice Value feedback Weaknesses: Didn’t initially take emotional factors into account. Individualistic cultures Need to achieve emphasizes Personal individual success Collectivist cultures Achievements views as a way of bringing glory to one’s family, group, or country

Relative Deprivation you have the perception that you are worse off than the other people you compare yourself to. Having this feeling typically leads to frustration. How then, does it drive behavior?

Humanism: Maslow Hierarchy of Needs Physical Needs at bottom must be met first. Psychological goals come after… ultimate goal is self actualization. Personal potential Psychological and cognitive factors How good a society does human nature permit? How good a human nature does society permit? Self transcendence = focus beyond the SELF~

Humanistic Motivation Strengths: Recognized biological needs & importance of environment Weaknesses: Too basic of ideas Self-actualization concept is vague Limited samples The notion that we must satisfy needs at one level before moving on to the next has not been supported by research

Need to Belong… Aiding survival Wanting to belong Sustaining Relationships The pain of ostracism Social exclusion BRAIN heightened Anterior cingulate cortex Physical pain Ostracism Regulation of sympathetic activity

Self actualized characteristics Value privacy Democratic Problem-centered Nonconformists Clear perception of reality Un-hostile sense of humor Autonomous & independent Accept themselves & others Not afraid of success or failure Creative, willing to try new things Spontaneous; open, concentrate on present Develop close relationships with others Realize potential & appreciate potential in others Enjoy the process of doing something as well as the end product NOT defensive STUDIED people with qualities Maslow admired Criticisms: too positive, vague, and subjective concepts (difficult to measure) *encouraging selfishness and self-indulgence *underestimates the value of social obligations *underestimates the human predisposition to engage in destructive & evil behaviors

Anorexia Parents who are high achieving & protective

Sexual Motivation Sexual response: External Stimuli E =excitement P = plateau O = orgasm R = resolution External Stimuli Viewing images of sexually attractive people Devalue own partners Salt N Pepa The song talks about safe sex, the positive and negative sides of sex and the censorship that sex had around that time in 1991 American mainstream media.

Adolescent Sexuality Why higher rate of teen pregnancy & abortion? Ignorance Minimal communication about birth control Guilt related to sexual activity Alcohol use Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity Predictors of sexual restraint High intelligence Religious engagement Father presence Service learning programs Salt & Peppa = lets talk about sex…