Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices 2e Chapter 5 Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices 2e By Lowell Barrington Political Systems and Their Rules  1

Learning Objectives Define key concepts such as political institution, democracy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism, and federal versus unitary systems. Explain the role of a constitution, and understand the concept of constitutionalism. Discuss the general type of political system and important constitutional issues in the TIC cases. Categorize each TIC case as having either a unitary or a federal system.

Political Institutions Regime (Political System) Types Democracy Selection of government officials through free and fair elections The balance of majority rule and minority protection Limitations on government action Variants of democracy Majoritarian, consensus European, Westminster, American and Latin American models

Political Institutions Regime (Political System) Types Totalitarianism Seeks the atomization of society (Arendt) Emphasizes mass mobilization Official ideology Single political party Reliance on terror to maintain order Control of communications Control over the means of force in society Command economy

Think and Discuss Look at the list of criteria associated with free and fair elections. How do American elections measure up based on these criteria? 5

Political Institutions Regime (Political System) Types Authoritarianism Presence of a dominant leader or small group of leaders Limited political participation Degree of autonomy of society from state control Lack of ideology Limited control over the economy Variants of authoritarianism Military, party, bureaucratic

Political Institutions Regime (Political System) Types Semiauthoritarianism/Semidemocracy Democracy is incorporated into an otherwise authoritarian system

The Constitution: A Regime’s Rules for Making Rules Rule of Law A constitution add legitimacy to a system Constitutionalism A central concept in the U.S. and other democracies Constitutions are designed to limit the power of government Government officials must follow the laws of the land Upholding these limitations and following these laws is a key source of legitimacy

Think and Discuss Is the U.S. Constitution really as vague as the previous discussion suggests? Provide specific examples from the U.S. Constitution to support your position. 9

Levels of Government Unitary versus Federal Arrangements Unitary: Lower levels of government have no powers reserved to them. Federal: Lower levels of government share powers with the central government or have certain powers of their own. Local Government Exists in federal and unitary systems Oversees “day-to-day” municipal governing Devolving Government Powers from Central Governments to Lower Levels

Topic in Countries The United Kingdom “Westminster democracy,” highly majoritarian Constitution is not in a single written document; a collection of acts, legal opinions, and customs Despite significant devolution of powers to regions, remains a unitary state

In Theory and Practice Veto Points in the United Kingdom Individuals or collective political bodies whose failure to accept a policy change results in the rejection of the proposed change Parliamentary systems generally have fewer veto points than do presidential systems (see Chapter 6), and unicameral (single-chamber) legislatures have fewer veto points than bicameral ones Thatcher took advantage by making significant social welfare policy changes

Topic in Countries Germany Consensus democracy; combination of coalition governments, federalism, and corporatism The constitution (Basic Law) lays out both social welfare protections and limits on government “Cooperative federalism” with significant powers for the Länder

Topic in Countries India Parliamentary democracy; system has evolved from one-party dominant to multiparty Constitution is long, detailed, and heavily amended; federal system with strong central government Federal system (28 federal units), but the central government has strong powers; three levels of government

Topic in Countries Mexico Party-authoritarian system until recently; today an unconsolidated democracy Constitution originally written in 1917; prohibits the president and legislators from running for reelection; provides for checks and balances that became important when PRI lost its dominance Federal system with 31 federal units (estados) and one federal district; estados dependent on central government for revenue

In Theory and Practice Political Change in Mexico and Easton’s Systems Theory “Old Institutionalism” in political science had focused on describing institutions The behavioralism movement that began in the 1950s focused on explaining political outcomes David Easton proposed that all political systems translate inputs (demands and supports) into outputs (policy) The system responds to changes in supports and demands Easton’s model pays little attention to the design of the institutions themselves

In Theory and Practice Political Change in Mexico and Easton’s Systems Theory Mexico and Easton’s Approach In the latter part of the twentieth century, changes in demands and supports put pressure on the government of Mexico Resulted in policy changes, including the political liberalization of the 1970s-1990s Even without looking “inside” the Mexican system, Easton’s framework helps explain the changes that led to the PRI losing its dominance over Mexican politics

Topic in Countries Brazil Has alternated between democracy and military authoritarianism; remains an unconsolidated democracy with traditional elites maintaining significant power Current constitution written in 1988; enshrined privileges for the outgoing military government Federal system with 26 federal units (estados); more power for lower levels than in Mexico; preserves power of local elites

Topic in Countries Nigeria Combination of majoritarian and consensus democracy; has alternated between democracy and military authoritarianism; democratic status is increasingly unclear Most recent constitution written in 1999; emphasis on the need for unity in a country with prevalent identity and political divisions since independence Formerly an ethno-federal system; now more of an American-style federal system; provides a certain degree of cross-cutting identities among the otherwise complementary identity divisions

Topic in Countries Russia Democratic following collapse of USSR; creeping authoritarianism; semiauthoritarian system today New constitution since December 1993; Putin not seeking third term gave some legitimacy to the constitution in an otherwise increasingly authoritarian system Federal system; since Putin came to power, central government has increased its power versus the regions (which now number 83)

Topic in Countries China Under Mao Zedong, often considered a totalitarian system; since Deng Xiaoping, more like a party-authoritarian system Evidence that a constitution, even one that is somewhat followed, does not equal democracy Unitary state with 31 regions; some devolution, but still not a federal system

In Theory and Practice China and Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions Theda Skocpol’s 1979 book set the stage for a new focus on political institutions Skocpol saw state institutions as an important independent variable, not a “black box” like in Easton’s approach Led to calls to “bring the state back in” China is a Main Case in Skocpol’s Book Collapse of Imperial System due to the state relying on local leaders for military support Her argument has relevance today, as China relies more and more on regional and local officials

Topic in Countries Iran Theocracy; under former President Khatami, attempts at reform; under President Ahmadinejad, a return to hardline policies Constitution after the Revolution implemented a theocracy, including the position of Supreme Leader; overhauled in 1989 (abolished prime min.) Unitary state with 30 regions; powerful provincial leaders; central government has overseen “controlled decentralization”

In Theory and Practice Iran and Rational Choice New Institutionalism Focuses on theories that use political institutions to explain political outcomes Three main variants: Sociological N.I. Historical N.I. Rational Choice N.I. Rational Choice New Institutionalism Sees political institutions as the product of rational choices by political actors Existing rules constrain decision makers, but they may also try to change these arrangements

In Theory and Practice Iran and Rational Choice New Institutionalism Rational Choice N.I. and Iran Many in the West portray Iranian leaders as irrational fanatics But, Rational Choice N.I. would see them as much more rational, designing the rules of their theocracy to maximize the goals of maintaining power and controlling society Reformers versus Hardliners Rational Choice N.I. explains how reformers wanting to change existing rules are constrained It also explains the hardliners’ use of the existing rules to block pro-reform candidates