CHAPTER 2 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Theories of Human Development Theory: Ideas proposed to describe/explain certain phenomena Organizes facts/observations Guides collection of new data Should be internally consistent Falsifiable: Hypothesis can be tested and proven wrong Supported by data

Other Assumptions About Human Nature Nature/Nurture: Heredity or environment most influential? Goodness/Badness: Underlying good or evil Active/Passive Development: Self determination or by others Continuity/Discontinuity: Stages or gradual change Quantitative/Qualitative Changes: Degree or transformation Universal or Context Specific Development

The Psychoanalytic Perspective From Freud’s theory: Proposes that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality Techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Personality Structure Id Superego Ego Conscious mind Unconscious mind Freud’s idea of the mind’s structure Preconscious mind

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Instincts and unconscious motivation Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (Libido) Id: Instinctual nature of humans (anger and sex). Operates on the pleasure principle Ego: rational and objective (reality principle) Superego: internalized moral standards A dynamic personality system Regular conflicts between the three parts

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Child moves through five stages Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego Conflict creates anxiety Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

Personality Development Psychosexual Stages the childhood stages of development during which the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones Oedipus Complex a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father Electra Complex a girl’s sexual desires for a penis, aimed at her father and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival mother

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory Awareness of unconscious motivation Emphasized important early experience Weaknesses Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable Not supported by research

Most influential neo-Freudian Some differences with Freud Erik Erikson Most influential neo-Freudian Some differences with Freud Less emphasis on sexual urges More emphasis on rational ego More positive, adaptive view of human nature Development continues through adulthood

Erikson’s Stages: Approximate Ages Trust vs. Mistrust: Importance of responsive caregiver (1st year) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: (1 to 3) Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool (4 to 5) Industry vs. Inferiority: School-age children Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adult Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle age Integrity vs. Despair: Old Age

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature Interaction of biological & social influences Weaknesses Sometimes vague and difficult to test Does not explain how development comes about

Behaviorism Pavlov, Watson, Skinner Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior. Psychological aspects of development are determined by the environment. According to the behaviorists: Everything is learned!!!! Tabula Rasa - Environmental view

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Discovered classical condition by serendipity.

NS: Does not elicit a response UCS: Built-in, unlearned stimulus Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. Association Learning NS: Does not elicit a response UCS: Built-in, unlearned stimulus UCR: Automatic, unlearned response CS: Stimulus causes learned response CR: Learned response

Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Original Experiemnt 17

Little Albert: The three phases of classical conditioning

Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Skinner Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences Operant Behavior - operates (acts) on environment produces consequences Consequences (rewards and punishments) are contingent on the organism’s behavior. Reinforcement (reward) increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Punishment decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcement – giving something that the person wants that increases the behavior Examples: Praise Teacher attention Rewards Negative reinforcement – taking away something that the person does not want that increases the behavior Cough medicine Child stops whining when parent picks the child up Nagging

Types of Punishment Positive Punishment (type I or Presentation punishment) – giving something that the person does not want that decreases the behavior Detention Extra work Chores Yelling Negative Punishment (type II or Removal punishment) – taking away something that the person wants that decreases the behavior Loss of recess Loss of favorite toy/activity

Possible consequences of whining behavior. Moosie comes into the TV room and sees his father talking and joking with his sister. Lulu, as the two watch a football game. Soon Moosie begins to whine, louder and louder, that he wants them to turn off the television so he can play Nintendo games. If you were Moosie’s father, how would you react? Here are four possible consequences of Moosie’s behavior. Consider both the type of consequences – whether it is a pleasant or aversive stimulus – and whether it is administered (“added to”) or withdrawn. Notice that reinforcers strengthen whining behavior, or make it more likely in the future, whereas punishers weaken it.

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Formerly called social learning theory Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc. Cognitive Emphasis: Observational learning BoBo doll studies Model praised or punished Child learned to imitate rewarded model Children learn vicariously.

Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses Precise and testable theory Carefully controlled experiments Practical applications across lifespan Weaknesses Inadequate account of lifespan changes Ignored genetic and maturational processes

The Ecology of Human Development Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological Model How nature and nurture interact to produce development Five environmental systems Microsystem: family Mesosystem: school Exosystem: society Macrosystem: culture Chronosystem: time

Figure 1.2 Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development pictures environment as a series of nested structures. The microsystem refers to relations between the developing person and her immediate environment, the mesosystem to connections among microsystems, the exosystem to settings that affect but do not contain the individual, the macrosystem to the broader cultural context of development, and the chronosystem to the patterning over time of historical and life events. Researchers face many challenges in studying the developing person in context. Fig. 1.2, p. 7

Contextual/Systems Theories Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful

Gottlieb – Developmental Psychobiology Interaction: Biological & environmental influences Individual programmed through evolution Current behavior results from past adaptation Ethology: Behavior adaptive to specific environments Species-specific behavior of animals & humans

Gottlieb: Epigenesis Instinctual behavior may or may not occur Depends on early physical and social environments Genes alone don’t influence behavior A system of interactions People develop in changing contexts Historical Cultural

Figure 2-5 Gottlieb’s model of bidirectional influences Figure 2-5 Gottlieb’s model of bidirectional influences. Genes do not determine development; rather, genetic influences interact with environmental influences, the individual’s behavior, and activity at the neural level to make certain developmental outcomes more or less probable in the epigenetic process. Psychologists often focus on behavior–environment interactions, and biologists on genetic–neural interactions, but ALL parts of the system influences every other part (Gottlieb, 2003). Can you think of an example of each type of influence? Fig. 2.5, p. 53

Strengths and Weaknesses Stresses the interaction of nature and nurture Weaknesses Only partially formulated and tested No coherent developmental theory

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